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2009-03-21T21:04:00.001-07:00

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The amoung of starch in a 1/4kg camote

2009-03-21T16:43:00.000-07:00

The amount of starch in a ¼ white camote

Name1

Name2

Name3

Name4

An Investigatory Project presented to the

Faculty of St. Alphonsus Catholic School

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

Subject Science III Chemistry

SY 2008-2009

Problem

How many grams of starch are present in a ¼ white camote?

Abstract

Sweet potato or as known as camote is a dicotyledonous plant which belongs to the family Convolvulaceae. Amongst the approximately 50 genera and more than 1000 species of this family, only batatas is a crop plant whose large, starchy, sweet tasting tuberous roots are an important root vegetable. The young leaves and shoots are sometimes eaten as greens. The sweet potato is only distantly related to the potato (Solanum tuberosum). It is commonly called a yam in parts of North America, although they are only very distantly related to the other plant widely known as yams) (in the Dioscoreaceae family), which is native to Africa and Asia. The roots are most frequently boiled, fried, or baked. They can also be processed to make starch and a partial flour substitute. Industrial uses include the production of starch and industrial alcohol. Although the leaves and shoots are also edible, the starchy tuberous roots are by far the most important product. In some tropical areas, they are a staple food-crop.

This plant is a herbaceous perennial vine, bearing alternate heart-shaped or palmately lobed leaves and medium-sized sympetalous flowers. The edible tuberous root is long and tapered, with a smooth skin whose color ranges between red, purple, brown and white. Its flesh ranges from white through yellow, orange, and purple.

Introduction

Starch or amylum (chemical formula (C₆H₁₀O₅)) is a polysaccharide carbohydrate consisting of a large number of glucose units joined together by glycosidic bonds. Starch is produced by all green plants as an energy store and is a major food source for humans.Pure starch is a white, tasteless and odorless powder that is insoluble in cold water or alcohol. It consists of two types of molecules: the linear and helical amylose and the branched amylopectin. Depending on the plant, starch generally contains 20 to 25 percent amylose and 75 to 80 percent amylopectin.^[1] Glycogen, the glucose store of animals, is a more branched version of amylopectin. The word "starch" is derived from Middle English sterchen, meaning to stiffen, which is appropriate since starch can be used as a thickening or glueing agent when dissolved in water and heated, giving wheatpaste.

Review of Related Literature

Starch is a dietary fiber, essential for health because it reduces overall hunger, by filling you up and inducing a hormonal response to shut off hunger. It helps control blood sugar levels, meaning more sustained energy and long-term heart protection.As a prebiotic, it selectively stimulates the growth and/or activity of healthy bacterias in the colon, and therefore boosts your immune system.Its fermentation in the large intestine produces beneficial fatty acids, including butyrate, which may block the body’s ability to burn carbohydrates and may protect the colon from cancer.

Advantages and disadvantages of camote

Sweet Potato or scientific of is also called a yam in USA but not really the true Yams. There is a confusion of this. Anyway Camote or sweet potato is propagated using the vine or stem as it is like a vines root crop. Camote grows in tropical area like Philippines, China, Africa and USA. It is used as food and vegetables. New leaves or shoot is uses as vegetable as it is green leafy vegetable and good for diet and a source of vitamin C, vitamin A and vitamin B6. It is also high in fiver and has iron and calcium to name a few.
The roots are boiled, fried or baked. It is interesting to note that sweet potato is good for diabetic person. It will help maintain the sugar level in your body and will lower insulin resistance.
Other used of Camote is used to substitute as a starch. You can make them into a candy, bake them like a cake, cook the leaves as viand or make a pie out of the root.
You can make a chips also out of the root.

Sweet potato varieties with dark orange flesh have more beta carotene than those with light colored flesh and their increased cultivation is being encouraged in Africa where Vitamin A deficiency is a serious health problem. Despite the name "sweet", it may be a beneficial food for diabetics, as preliminary studies on animals have revealed that it helps to stabilize blood sugar levels and to lower insulin resistance. Some Americans, including television personality Oprah Winfrey, are advocating increased consumption of sweet potatoes both for their health benefits and because of their importance in traditional Southern cuisine.

There are no disadvantages in camote or sweet potato.

Procedure

The materials needed for this experiment is ¼ white sweet potato, knife, grinding machine, mortar and pestle.

The sweet potato was been peeled and sliced using the knife.

The peeled sweet potatoes were sliced into thin pieces.

Small plywood was used for drying the sliced sweet potatoes.

After drying the sweet potatoes a grinding machine was used in grinding. To soften the ground sweet potato, mortar and pestle was used in pounding.

Upon following the procedures above, starch was extracted from camote/ sweet potatoes. Besides simple starches, sweet potatoes are rich in complex carbohydrates, dietary fiber, beta carotene (a vitamin A equivalent nutrient), vitamin C, and vitamin B6.

We found out that the starch extracted from sweet potatoes is healthier to use than the starch sold in department stores for it undergo chemical processes.

Result and Discussion

The researchers were able to get the amount of starch present in a ¼ white camote. Flour from sweet potatoes is high in fiber and contains a higher level of carbohydrates and lower level of protein than common wheat flour.

It can be used for baked goods, such as breads, cookies, muffins, pancakes, and doughnuts, and as a thickener for sauces and gravies. Commonly used in gluten free cooking and baking.

Conclusion

The amount of grams of a starch that came from the ¼ sweet potato (camote) is 96.5g.

Recommendation

For the next researchers who would like to do our study we recommend them to repeat the procedure for 2 or more times to have an accurate results.

Do the experiment by group and never depend only on one person to do the experiment. And as possible have some research in the internet or books, and never concentrate to one source only as possible have as many sources you could have to help you in having an accurate result.

Bibliography

http://en.qoach.org/what-are-the-health-benefits-of-resistant-starch/

http://www.healthandwealthtopic.com/2007/07/benefits-of-eating-sweet-potato-or.html

http://web.mac.com/scifione/orig/LABWARE/LAB-GIFS/Mortar-n-Pestle.gif

http://www.mixph.com/2007/12/how-to-make-kamote-flour.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camote

http://ejournal.sinica.edu.tw/bbas/content/1995/4/bot364-03.html

http://www.tonytantillo.com/vegetables/sweetpotatoes.html

http://www.barryfarm.com/nutri_info/flours/sweetpotatoflour.htm

Adviser

Ms. Leah B. Pahugot

Science Teacher

The Amoung of Citric Acid in a 3/4 ripe Mango

2009-03-21T16:41:00.000-07:00

AMOUNT OF CITRIC ACID IN A 3/4 g OF RIPE MANGO

RESEARCHERS:

Name1

Name2

Name3

Name4

An Investigatory Project presented to the

Faculty of St. Alphonsus Catholic School

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

Subject Science III Chemistry

SY 2008-2009

Problem:

How much citric acid content is present in a ripe mango?

Abstract:

Mangoes belong to the genus Mangifera, consisting of numerous species of tropical

fruiting trees in the flowering plant family Anacardiaceae. The mango is indigenous to

the Indian Subcontinent especially India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Southeast Asia.

Cultivated in many tropical regions and distributed widely in the world, mango is one of

the most extensively exploited fruits for food, juice, flavor, fragrance and color, making it

a common ingredient in new functional foods often called superfruits. Its leaves are

ritually used as floral decorations at weddings and religious ceremonies.

Introduction:

Citric acid is a white crystalline powder. It can exist either in an anhydrous

(water-free) form or as a monohydrate. The anhydrous form crystallizes from hot water,

whereas the monohydrate forms when citric acid is crystallized from cold water. The

monohydrate can be converted to the anhydrous form by heating it above 78 °C. Citric

acid also dissolves in absolute (anhydrous) ethanol (76 parts of citric acid per 100 parts of

ethanol) at 15 degrees Celsius.

In chemical structure, citric acid shares the properties of other carboxylic acids. When

heated above 97°C, it decomposes through the loss of carbon dioxide and water.

Review of related literature:

Citric acid is a weak organic acid, and it is a natural preservative and is also used to add an acidic, or sour, taste to foods and soft drinks. In biochemistry, it is important as an intermediate in the citric acid cycle and therefore occurs in the metabolism of almost all living things. It also serves as an environmentally benign cleaning agent and acts as an antioxidant and a lubricant.

Citric acid exists in a variety of fruits and vegetables, most notably citrus fruits. Lemons and limes have particularly high concentrations of the acid; it can constitute as much as 8% of the dry weight of these fruits (1.44 and 1.38 grams per ounce of the juices, respectively). The concentrations of citric acid in citrus fruits range from .005 mol/L for oranges and grapefruits to .030 mol/L in lemons and limes. These values will vary depending on the circumstances in which the fruit was grown.

Procedure:

All the materials were prepared needed for the experiment. First is a need to pick mangoes that are firm, The mango was squeezed a little so that it would be soft and they turn too mush, too firm mangoes have stone in their center, and that's what make them trickery to cut up. The stone were flatted oval; the mangoes were narrower one way than the other in alignment with the stone. The mangoes were washed and took the stickers off... Begin by turning the mango up on this skinny side. The mangoes cheek was cut off, as close to the stone as possible. If the stone was hit, it may usually just serve around it a little. The other cheek was cut; a cheek was taken and sliced the meat of the fruit all the way down to the skin. But not through it be careful. The skin was pretty thick, and it’s not likely cut yourself. The other from now was cut to make a grid. The cheek was flipped inside out so that the fruit now splays out in "cubes" then peel the fruit off. Do this over and over, whatever put the fruit into, as it likely to drip if the mango. If the mango is too ripe, at this stage it wont be able to peel of chunks, but rather than it will find yourself squeezing off mush. The cheeks were put both in the blender here. Now it had all the fruit off mango that can be use. The juice was place of the mango inside the beaker and heats it until it boils. The remaining juice was put it in the titration kit, measure it using acid basses titration. The titrant was used as a calibrated burette to add, it is possible to determine the exact amount that has been consumed when the endpoint is reached. The endpoint was the point at which the titration is complete, as determined by an indicator. This was ideally the same volume as the equivalence point - the volume of added titrant at which the number of moles of titrant is equal to the number of moles of analyte, or some multiple thereof (as in polyprotic acids).

Result and discussion:

Citric acid is the most widely used organic acidulate and pH-control agent. This is

probably due to the fact that it is a WEAK acid. If it was a strong acid it would probably

take out a couple teeth as you gulp it down in your soda

Citrates also aid in the help of alcoholics. Since citric acid IS an acid and a

property of acid is a sour taste. Citric acid is added to a lot of beverages and medications.

Conclusion:

The amount of grams of a citric acid that came from the 3/4 ripe mango is 241.25 g.

Recommendation:

Do the experiment by group and never depend only on one person to do the experiment. And as possible have some research in the library or old books, and have as much time to spend and do the investigatory project early as possible. Have as many bibliographies as possible to have as many ideas.

Bibliography:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citric_acid

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mango

http://www.answers.com/topic/citric-acid

Adviser

Ms. Leah B. Pahugot

Science Teacher

English (Song to Celia)

2009-03-21T08:32:00.000-07:00

Song To Celia
by Ben Jonson

Drink to me, only with thine eyes
And I will pledge with mine;
Or leave a kiss but in the cup,
And I'll not look for wine.
The thirst that from the soul doth rise
Doth ask a drink divine:
But might I of Jove's nectar sup
I would not change for thine.
I sent thee late a rosy wreath,
Not so much honouring thee
As giving it a hope that there
It could not withered be
But thou thereon didst only breath
And sent'st it back to me:
Since, when it grows and smells, I swear,
Not of itself but thee.

Melvin’s Line 1- 4

Drink to me, only with thine eyes
And I will pledge with mine;
Or leave a kiss but in the cup,
And I'll not look for wine.

Paraphrase
The speaker in "Song to Celia" opens with a plea for his lady to express her love by gazing upon him. His plea is assertive, in the form of a command to drink to him with her eyes. He wants more than an expression of her love, however; he wants a pledge. He notes this in the second line when he declares that he will return the pledge with his own eyes. The reference to the cup that is commonly filled with wine becomes an apt metaphor for what he is asking from his lady. One usually makes a toast, a pledge of some sort, when first sipping a cup of wine. The speaker wants his lady to make a pledge to him with her eyes rather than while drinking from a cup of wine. This pledge would be more personal and so more meaningful to him.

Bryan’s Line 5 - 8
The thirst that from the soul doth rise
Doth ask a drink divine:
But might I of Jove's nectar sup
I would not change for thine.
Paraphrase
The speaker insists that if his lady would leave a kiss for him in the cup, he would prize it more than nectar from the gods. He claims that his soul "thirsts" for love and that only "a drink divine" that transcends even Jove's nectar can quench it. "Jove" refers to the god Jupiter, lord of the classical gods and a recurrent symbol of divinity in secular poetry. The gods drank heavenly nectar far finer than any wine mortals drank.

Computer Ma'am Son's Research

2009-03-21T08:30:00.000-07:00

Browser is a software application which enables a user to display and interact with text, images, videos, music, games and other information.

BPS is the total number of physically transferred bits per second over a communication link, including useful data as well as protocol overhead.

Byte is the basic unit of measurement of information storage in computer science.

Chip is a constraint logic programming language developed by M. Dincbas in 1985.

Circuit is a topic in computational complexity theory, a branch of theoretical computer science which classifies boolean functions according to the amount of computational resources needed to compute them.

Client is an application or system that accesses a remote service on another computer system, known as a server, by way of a network.[1] The term was first applied to devices that were not capable of running their own stand-alone programs, but could interact with remote computers via a network. These dumb terminals were clients of the time-sharing mainframe computer.

ActiveX is a component object model (COM) developed by Microsoft for Windows.

ASCII is a character encoding based on the English alphabet.

bit is a binary digit, taking a value of either 0 or 1.

Bug is an error, flaw, mistake, failure, fault or “undocumented feature” in a computer program that prevents it from behaving as intended.

Computer is a machine that manipulates data according to a list of instructions.

Cyberspace is the global domain of electro-magnetics accessed through electronic technology and exploited through the modulation of electromagnetic energy to achieve a wide range of communication and control system capabilities.

E-mail is a store-and-forward method of writing, sending, receiving and saving messages over electronic communication systems.

Firewall is an integrated collection of security measures designed to prevent unauthorized electronic access to a networked computer system.

Font is traditionally defined as a complete character set of a single size and style of a particular typeface.

Hacker is generic term for a computer criminal, often with a specific specialty in computer intrusion.

HTML is the predominant markup language for Web pages.

Icon is an image of a softwere.

Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that interchange data by packet switching using the standardized Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP).

Multitasking is a method by which multiple tasks, also known as processes, share common processing resources such as a CPU.

Online is a state or conditions of a "device or equipment" or of "a functional unit".

Spreadsheet is a computer application that simulates a paper worksheet.

Word Processor is a computer application used for the production (including composition, editing, formatting, and possibly printing) of any sort of printable material.

Virus is a piece of data this is dangerous to any other softwere because it can cause a softwere to malfunction.

DSL is a family of technologies that provides digital data transmission over the wires of a local telephone network.

Hip Hop History

2009-03-21T08:29:00.002-07:00

Jamaican born DJ Clive "Kool Herc" Campbell is credited as originating hip hop music, in the Bronx, New York, after moving to New York at the age of thirteen. Herc created the blueprint for hip hop music and culture by building upon the Jamaican tradition of toasting, or boasting impromptu poetry and sayings over music, which he witnessed as a youth in Jamaica.Herc and other DJs would tap into the power lines to connect their equipment and perform, at venues such as public basketball courts and the historic building "where hip hop was born," 1520 Sedgwick Avenue, Bronx, New York. [8] Their equipment was composed of huge stacks of speakers, turntables, and one or more microphones.[9] In late 1979, Debbie Harry of Blondie took Chic co-founder and lead guitarist Nile Rodgers to such an event, as the main backing track used was the break from Chic's "Good Times". Herc was also the developer of break-beat deejaying, where the breaks of funk songs—the part most suited to dance, usually percussion-based—were isolated and repeated for the purpose of all-night dance parties. This breakbeat DJing, using hard funk, rock, and records with Latin percussion, formed the basis of hip hop music. Campbell's announcements and exhortations to dancers would lead to the syncopated, rhymed spoken accompaniment we now know as rapping. He dubbed his dancers break-boys and break-girls, or simply b-boys and b-girls. According to Herc, "breaking" was also street slang for "getting excited" and "acting energetically". Herc's terms b-boy, b-girl and breaking became part of the lexicon of hip hop culture, before that culture itself had developed a name. Later DJs such as Grand Wizard Theodore, Grandmaster Flash and Jazzy Jay refined and developed the use of breakbeats, including cutting and scratching.The approach used by Herc was soon widely copied, and by the late 1970s DJs were releasing 12" records where they would rap to the beat. Popular tunes included Kurtis Blow's "The Breaks", and The Sugar Hill Gang's "Rapper's Delight." Emceeing is the rhythmic spoken delivery of rhymes and wordplay, delivered over a beat or without accompaniment. Rapping is derived from the griots (folk poets) of West Africa, and Jamaican-style toasting. Rap developed both inside and outside of hip hop culture, and began with the street parties thrown in the Bronx neighborhood of New York in the 1970s by Kool Herc and others. It originated as MCs would talk over the music to promote their DJ, promote other dance parties, take light-hearted jabs at other lyricists, or talk about problems in their areas and issues facing the community as a whole. Melle Mel, a rapper/lyricist with The Furious Five, is often credited with being the first rap lyricist to call himself an "MC". Hip hop as a culture was further defined in 1983, when Afrika Bambaataa and the Soulsonic Force released a track called "Planet Rock." Instead of simply rapping over disco beats, Bambaataa created an innovative electronic sound, taking advantage of the rapidly improving drum machine and synthesizer technology. The appearance of music videos changed entertainment: they often glorified urban neighborhoods. The music video for "Planet Rock" showcased the subculture of hip hop musicians, graffiti artists and breakdancers. Many hip hop-related films were released between 1983 and 1985, among them Wild Style, Beat Street, Krush Groove, Breakin, and the documentary Style Wars. These films expanded the appeal of hip hop beyond the boundaries of New York. By 1985, youth worldwide were laying down scrap linoleum or cardboard, setting down portable "boombox" stereos and spinning on their backs in Adidas tracksuits and sneakers to music by Run DMC, LL Cool J, the Fat Boys, Herbie Hancock, EPMD, Soulsonic Force, Jazzy Jay, Dr. Jeckyll and Mr. Hyde, and Stetsasonic, just to name a few. The hip hop artwork and "slang" of US urban communities quickly found its way to Europe and Asia, as the culture's global appeal took root. The 1980s also saw many artists make social statements through hip hop. In 1982, Melle Mel and Duke Bootee recorded "The Message" (officially credited to Grandmaster Flash & The Furious Five), a song that foreshadowed the socially conscious statements of Run-DMC's "It's like That" and Public Enemy's "Black Steel in the Hour of Chaos." During the 1980s, hip hop also embraced the creation of rhythm by using the human body, via the vocal percussion technique of beatboxing. Early pioneers such as Doug E. Fresh, Biz Markie, and Buffy from the Fat Boys made beats, rhythm, and musical sounds using their mouth, lips, tongue, voice, and other body parts. "Human Beatbox" artists would also sing or imitate turntablism scratching or other instrument sounds.

The Necklace

2009-03-21T08:29:00.001-07:00

She was one of those pretty and charming girls born, as though fate had blundered over her, into a family of artisans. She had no marriage portion, no expectations, no means of getting known, understood, loved, and wedded by a man of wealth and distinction; and she let herself be married off to a little clerk in the Ministry of Education. Her tastes were simple because she had never been able to afford any other, but she was as unhappy as though she had married beneath her; for women have no caste or class, their beauty, grace, and charm serving them for birth or family, their natural delicacy, their instinctive elegance, their nimbleness of wit, are their only mark of rank, and put the slum girl on a level with the highest lady in the land.
She suffered endlessly, feeling herself born for every delicacy and luxury. She suffered from the poorness of her house, from its mean walls, worn chairs, and ugly curtains. All these things, of which other women of her class would not even have been aware, tormented and insulted her. The sight of the little Breton girl who came to do the work in her little house aroused heart-broken regrets and hopeless dreams in her mind. She imagined silent antechambers, heavy with Oriental tapestries, lit by torches in lofty bronze sockets, with two tall footmen in knee-breeches sleeping in large arm-chairs, overcome by the heavy warmth of the stove. She imagined vast saloons hung with antique silks, exquisite pieces of furniture supporting priceless ornaments, and small, charming, perfumed rooms, created just for little parties of intimate friends, men who were famous and sought after, whose homage roused every other woman's envious longings.
When she sat down for dinner at the round table covered with a three-days-old cloth, opposite her husband, who took the cover off the soup-tureen, exclaiming delightedly: "Aha! Scotch broth! What could be better?" she imagined delicate meals, gleaming silver, tapestries peopling the walls with folk of a past age and strange birds in faery forests; she imagined delicate food served in marvellous dishes, murmured gallantries, listened to with an inscrutable smile as one trifled with the rosy flesh of trout or wings of asparagus chicken.
She had no clothes, no jewels, nothing. And these were the only things she loved; she felt that she was made for them. She had longed so eagerly to charm, to be desired, to be wildly attractive and sought after.

She had a rich friend, an old school friend whom she refused to visit, because she suffered so keenly when she returned home. She would weep whole days, with grief, regret, despair, and misery.

One evening her husband came home with an exultant air, holding a large envelope in his hand.
"Here's something for you," he said.
Swiftly she tore the paper and drew out a printed card on which were these words:
"The Minister of Education and Madame Ramponneau request the pleasure of the company of Monsieur and Madame Loisel at the Ministry on the evening of Monday, January the 18th."
Instead of being delighted, as her husband hoped, she flung the invitation petulantly across the table, murmuring:
"What do you want me to do with this?"
"Why, darling, I thought you'd be pleased. You never go out, and this is a great occasion. I had tremendous trouble to get it. Every one wants one; it's very select, and very few go to the clerks. You'll see all the really big people there."
She looked at him out of furious eyes, and said impatiently: "And what do you suppose I am to wear at such an affair?"
He had not thought about it; he stammered:
"Why, the dress you go to the theatre in. It looks very nice, to me . . ."
He stopped, stupefied and utterly at a loss when he saw that his wife was beginning to cry. Two large tears ran slowly down from the corners of her eyes towards the corners of her mouth.
"What's the matter with you? What's the matter with you?" he faltered.
But with a violent effort she overcame her grief and replied in a calm voice, wiping her wet cheeks:
"Nothing. Only I haven't a dress and so I can't go to this party. Give your invitation to some friend of yours whose wife will be turned out better than I shall."
He was heart-broken.
"Look here, Mathilde," he persisted. "What would be the cost of a suitable dress, which you could use on other occasions as well, something very simple?"
She thought for several seconds, reckoning up prices and also wondering for how large a sum she could ask without bringing upon herself an immediate refusal and an exclamation of horror from the careful-minded clerk.

At last she replied with some hesitation:
"I don't know exactly, but I think I could do it on four hundred francs."
He grew slightly pale, for this was exactly the amount he had been saving for a gun, intending to get a little shooting next summer on the plain of Nanterre with some friends who went lark-shooting there on Sundays.
Nevertheless he said: "Very well. I'll give you four hundred francs. But try and get a really nice dress with the money."
The day of the party drew near, and Madame Loisel seemed sad, uneasy and anxious. Her dress was ready, however. One evening her husband said to her:
"What's the matter with you? You've been very odd for the last three days."
"I'm utterly miserable at not having any jewels, not a single stone, to wear," she replied. "I shall look absolutely no one. I would almost rather not go to the party."
"Wear flowers," he said. "They're very smart at this time of the year. For ten francs you could get two or three gorgeous roses."
She was not convinced.
"No . . . there's nothing so humiliating as looking poor in the middle of a lot of rich women."
"How stupid you are!" exclaimed her husband. "Go and see Madame Forestier and ask her to lend you some jewels. You know her quite well enough for that."
She uttered a cry of delight.
"That's true. I never thought of it."
Next day she went to see her friend and told her her trouble.
Madame Forestier went to her dressing-table, took up a large box, brought it to Madame Loisel, opened it, and said:
"Choose, my dear."
First she saw some bracelets, then a pearl necklace, then a Venetian cross in gold and gems, of exquisite workmanship. She tried the effect of the jewels before the mirror, hesitating, unable to make up her mind to leave them, to give them up. She kept on asking:
"Haven't you anything else?"
"Yes. Look for yourself. I don't know what you would like best."
Suddenly she discovered, in a black satin case, a superb diamond necklace; her heart began to beat covetously. Her hands trembled as she lifted it. She fastened it round her neck, upon her high dress, and remained in ecstasy at sight of herself.

Then, with hesitation, she asked in anguish:
"Could you lend me this, just this alone?"
"Yes, of course."
She flung herself on her friend's breast, embraced her frenziedly, and went away with her treasure. The day of the party arrived. Madame Loisel was a success. She was the prettiest woman present, elegant, graceful, smiling, and quite above herself with happiness. All the men stared at her, inquired her name, and asked to be introduced to her. All the Under-Secretaries of State were eager to waltz with her. The Minister noticed her.
She danced madly, ecstatically, drunk with pleasure, with no thought for anything, in the triumph of her beauty, in the pride of her success, in a cloud of happiness made up of this universal homage and admiration, of the desires she had aroused, of the completeness of a victory so dear to her feminine heart.
She left about four o'clock in the morning. Since midnight her husband had been dozing in a deserted little room, in company with three other men whose wives were having a good time. He threw over her shoulders the garments he had brought for them to go home in, modest everyday clothes, whose poverty clashed with the beauty of the ball-dress. She was conscious of this and was anxious to hurry away, so that she should not be noticed by the other women putting on their costly furs.
Loisel restrained her.
"Wait a little. You'll catch cold in the open. I'm going to fetch a cab."
But she did not listen to him and rapidly descended the staircase. When they were out in the street they could not find a cab; they began to look for one, shouting at the drivers whom they saw passing in the distance.
They walked down towards the Seine, desperate and shivering. At last they found on the quay one of those old nightprowling carriages which are only to be seen in Paris after dark, as though they were ashamed of their shabbiness in the daylight.
It brought them to their door in the Rue des Martyrs, and sadly they walked up to their own apartment. It was the end, for her. As for him, he was thinking that he must be at the office at ten.
She took off the garments in which she had wrapped her shoulders, so as to see herself in all her glory before the mirror. But suddenly she uttered a cry. The necklace was no longer round her neck!

"What's the matter with you?" asked her husband, already half undressed.
She turned towards him in the utmost distress.
"I . . . I . . . I've no longer got Madame Forestier's necklace. . . ."
He started with astonishment.
"What! . . . Impossible!"
They searched in the folds of her dress, in the folds of the coat, in the pockets, everywhere. They could not find it.
"Are you sure that you still had it on when you came away from the ball?" he asked.
"Yes, I touched it in the hall at the Ministry."
"But if you had lost it in the street, we should have heard it fall."
"Yes. Probably we should. Did you take the number of the cab?"
"No. You didn't notice it, did you?"
"No."
They stared at one another, dumbfounded. At last Loisel put on his clothes again.
"I'll go over all the ground we walked," he said, "and see if I can't find it."
And he went out. She remained in her evening clothes, lacking strength to get into bed, huddled on a chair, without volition or power of thought.
Her husband returned about seven. He had found nothing.
He went to the police station, to the newspapers, to offer a reward, to the cab companies, everywhere that a ray of hope impelled him.
She waited all day long, in the same state of bewilderment at this fearful catastrophe.
Loisel came home at night, his face lined and pale; he had discovered nothing.
"You must write to your friend," he said, "and tell her that you've broken the clasp of her necklace and are getting it mended. That will give us time to look about us."
She wrote at his dictation.

By the end of a week they had lost all hope.
Loisel, who had aged five years, declared:
"We must see about replacing the diamonds."
Next day they took the box which had held the necklace and went to the jewellers whose name was inside. He consulted his books.
"It was not I who sold this necklace, Madame; I must have merely supplied the clasp."
Then they went from jeweller to jeweller, searching for another necklace like the first, consulting their memories, both ill with remorse and anguish of mind.
In a shop at the Palais-Royal they found a string of diamonds which seemed to them exactly like the one they were looking for. It was worth forty thousand francs. They were allowed to have it for thirty-six thousand.

They begged the jeweller not to sell it for three days. And they arranged matters on the understanding that it would be taken back for thirty-four thousand francs, if the first one were found before the end of February.
Loisel possessed eighteen thousand francs left to him by his father. He intended to borrow the rest.
He did borrow it, getting a thousand from one man, five hundred from another, five louis here, three louis there. He gave notes of hand, entered into ruinous agreements, did business with usurers and the whole tribe of money-lenders. He mortgaged the whole remaining years of his existence, risked his signature without even knowing if he could honour it, and, appalled at the agonising face of the future, at the black misery about to fall upon him, at the prospect of every possible physical privation and moral torture, he went to get the new necklace and put down upon the jeweller's counter thirty-six thousand francs.
When Madame Loisel took back the necklace to Madame Forestier, the latter said to her in a chilly voice:
"You ought to have brought it back sooner; I might have needed it."
She did not, as her friend had feared, open the case. If she had noticed the substitution, what would she have thought? What would she have said? Would she not have taken her for a thief?

Madame Loisel came to know the ghastly life of abject poverty. From the very first she played her part heroically. This fearful debt must be paid off. She would pay it. The servant was dismissed. They changed their flat; they took a garret under the roof.
She came to know the heavy work of the house, the hateful duties of the kitchen. She washed the plates, wearing out her pink nails on the coarse pottery and the bottoms of pans. She washed the dirty linen, the shirts and dish-cloths, and hung them out to dry on a string; every morning she took the dustbin down into the street and carried up the water, stopping on each landing to get her breath. And, clad like a poor woman, she went to the fruiterer, to the grocer, to the butcher, a basket on her arm, haggling, insulted, fighting for every wretched halfpenny of her money.
Every month notes had to be paid off, others renewed, time gained.

Her husband worked in the evenings at putting straight a merchant's accounts, and often at night he did copying at twopence-halfpenny a page.
And this life lasted ten years.
At the end of ten years everything was paid off, everything, the usurer's charges and the accumulation of superimposed interest.
Madame Loisel looked old now. She had become like all the other strong, hard, coarse women of poor households. Her hair was badly done, her skirts were awry, her hands were red. She spoke in a shrill voice, and the water slopped all over the floor when she scrubbed it. But sometimes, when her husband was at the office, she sat down by the window and thought of that evening long ago, of the ball at which she had been so beautiful and so much admired.
What would have happened if she had never lost those jewels. Who knows? Who knows? How strange life is, how fickle! How little is needed to ruin or to save!
One Sunday, as she had gone for a walk along the Champs-Elysees to freshen herself after the labours of the week, she caught sight suddenly of a woman who was taking a child out for a walk. It was Madame Forestier, still young, still beautiful, still attractive.
Madame Loisel was conscious of some emotion. Should she speak to her? Yes, certainly. And now that she had paid, she would tell her all. Why not?
She went up to her.
"Good morning, Jeanne."
The other did not recognise her, and was surprised at being thus familiarly addressed by a poor woman.
"But . . . Madame . . ." she stammered. "I don't know . . . you must be making a mistake."
"No . . . I am Mathilde Loisel."
Her friend uttered a cry.
"Oh! . . . my poor Mathilde, how you have changed! . . ."
"Yes, I've had some hard times since I saw you last; and many sorrows . . . and all on your account."
"On my account! . . . How was that?"
"You remember the diamond necklace you lent me for the ball at the Ministry?"
"Yes. Well?"
"Well, I lost it."
"How could you? Why, you brought it back."
"I brought you another one just like it. And for the last ten years we have been paying for it. You realise it wasn't easy for us; we had no money. . . . Well, it's paid for at last, and I'm glad indeed."

Madame Forestier had halted.
"You say you bought a diamond necklace to replace mine?"
"Yes. You hadn't noticed it? They were very much alike."
And she smiled in proud and innocent happiness.
Madame Forestier, deeply moved, took her two hands.
"Oh, my poor Mathilde! But mine was imitation. It was worth at the very most five hundred francs! . . . "

Topic Sentence

2009-03-21T08:27:00.000-07:00

Respect is the acknowledgment that someone or something has value. The showing of thoughtfulness and consideration. To refrain from intruding upon or interfering with. To respect a person's privacy. To relate or have reference to. Respect is commonly the result of admiration and approbation, together with deference. To feel respect for a great scholar. Esteem is deference combined with admiration and often with affection. To hold a friend in great esteem.

As a sign of respect in almost any form of the military is a salute. A salute is used by enlistees to show respect to officers (and vice-versa; to not return a salute to a subordinate is considered offensive) and by officers to those of higher rank. The 21-gun salute is done within the military for funerals of military members and for high-ranking civilians such as the President.

Respect has great importance in everyday life. As children we are taught (one hopes) to respect our parents, teachers, and elders, school rules and traffic laws, family and cultural traditions, other people's feelings and rights, our country's flag and leaders, the truth and people's differing opinions. And we come to value respect for such things; when we're older, we may shake our heads (or fists) at people who seem not to have learned to respect them. We develop great respect for people we consider exemplary and lose respect for those we discover to be clay-footed, and so we may try to respect only those who are truly worthy of our respect.

A. Paragraph 1
a. Topic Sentence
Respect is the acknowledgment that someone or something has value
b. Supporting detail.
-The showing of thoughtfulness and consideration
-To refrain from intruding upon or interfering with
-To respect a person's privacy
-To relate or have reference to
-Respect is commonly the result of admiration and approbation, together with deference
-To feel respect for a great scholar
c. Main Idea
Respect
d. The supporting detail is given in the form of.
In detail form

B. Paragraph 2
a. Topic Sentence
-As a sign of respect in almost any form of the military is a salute
b. Supporting detail.
-A salute is used by enlistees to show respect to officers
-The 21-gun salute is done within the military for funerals of military members and for high-ranking civilians such as the President
-To not return a salute to a subordinate is considered offensive
c. Main Idea
Salute.
A. The supporting detail is given in the form of.
Detail

C. Paragraph 3
a. Topic Sentence
Respect has great importance in everyday life
b. Supporting detail.
- As children we are taught (one hopes) to respect our parents, teachers, and elders, school rules and traffic laws, family and cultural traditions, other people's feelings and rights, our country's flag and leaders
-And we come to value respect for such things; when we're older, we may shake our heads (or fists)
-We develop great respect for people we consider exemplary and lose respect for those we discover to be clay-footed, and so we may try to respect only those who are truly worthy of our respect.
c. Main Idea
Respect
c. The supporting detail is given in the form of.
Detail

Example of Congregation

2009-03-21T08:26:00.000-07:00

The Congregation of Holy Cross or Congregatio a Sancta Cruce is a Roman Catholic congregation of priests and brothers founded in 1837 by Blessed Father Basil Anthony-Marie Moreau, CSC, in Le Mans, France.
Father Moreau also founded the Marianites of Holy Cross, now divided into three independent congregations of sisters. The Congregations of women who trace their origins to Father Moreau are the Marianites of Holy Cross (Le Mans, France), the Sisters of the Holy Cross, (Notre Dame, Indiana), and the Sisters of Holy Cross, (Montreal, Canada).
Basile Antoine-Marie Moreau, born at Laigné-en-Belan, near Le Mans, France, on February 11, 1799, founded the Congregation of Holy Cross. Basile Moreau saw a visible image of the Holy Family in this Congregation of Holy Cross which he had conceived as an Association of religious men and women working together on equal footing for the building of the reign of God. He intended that this Congregation, composed at its origins of three distinct Societies, namely, Sisters, Priests, and Brothers, be an apostolic institute. As Father Moreau stated in one of his letters, he envisioned that: “Holy Cross will grow like a mighty tree and constantly shoot forth new limbs and new branches which will be nourished by the same sap and endowed with the same life.”
Spirituality
“We pray with the church, we pray in community and we pray in solitude. Prayer is our faith attending to the Lord, and in that faith we meet him individually, yet we also stand in the company of others who know God as their Father.” Blessed Basil Moreau formed the Congregation of Holy Cross, exhorting his religious to conform themselves to Christ
• by trusting in Divine Providence
• by finding hope in the Cross of self-emptying love
• by standing by others as the Mother of Sorrows stood by her son
• by working together zealously as educators in the faith.
the priest’s spiritual life is centered around his service as celebrant of the Mass and as one who brings the sacraments to the people of God.Blessed Father Moreau called upon the spiritual aid of Jesus, Mary, and Joseph, giving to each of the three groups he established a patron from the Holy Family.
• He consecrated the priests to the Sacred Heart of Jesus.
• He consecrated the brothers to the pure heart of Saint Joseph.
• He consecrated the sisters to the Immaculate Heart of Mary.
And he also established Mary, under her title of Our Lady of Sorrows, as special patroness for all of Holy Cross. Learn more about the congregation’s devotion to Our Lady and embrace of spiritual practices.

Persecution of Christian 1st

2009-03-21T08:25:00.000-07:00

1^st period of Persecution under Nero, 64-68 A.D.

Great Fire of Rome

The first documented case of imperially-supervised persecution of the Christians in the Roman Empire begins with Nero (37-68). In 64 A.D., a great fire broke out in Rome, destroying portions of the city and economically devastating the Roman population. Nero himself was suspected as the arsonist by historian Suetonius, claiming he played the lyre and sang the 'Sack of Ilium' during the fires. In his Annals, Tacitus (who claimed Nero was in Antium at the time of the fire's outbreak), stated that "to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace" (Tacit. Annals XV, see Tacitus on Jesus).

People Who are persecuted: Many people were persecuted during the Holocaust and the time period before it. Jews were the primary focus, but others including Poles, Slavics, gypsies, homosexuals, mentally handicapped, physically handicapped, trade unionists, communists, and many more were targeted. Many political opponents and other possible competitors were murdered as well.

Persecution from the second century to Constantine

By the mid 2nd century, mobs could be found willing to throw stones at Christians, and they might be mobilized by rival sects. The Persecution in Lyon was preceded by mob violence, including assaults, robberies and stonings.

Further state persecutions were desultory until the third century, though Tertullian's Apologeticus of 197 was ostensibly written in defense of persecuted Christians and addressed to Roman governors The "edict of Septimius Severus" familiar in Christian history is doubted by some secular historians to have existed outside Christian martyrology.

The first documentable Empire-wide persecution took place under Maximinus, though only the clergy were sought out. It was not until Decius during the mid-century that a persecution of Christian laity across the Empire took place. Christian sources aver that a decree was issued requiring public sacrifice, a formality equivalent to a testimonial of allegiance to the Emperor and the established order. Decius authorized roving commissions visiting the cities and villages to supervise the execution of the sacrifices and to deliver written certificates to all citizens who performed them. Christians were often given opportunities to avoid further punishment by publicly offering sacrifices or burning incense to Roman gods, and were accused by the Romans of impiety when they refused. Refusal was punished by arrest, imprisonment, torture, and executions. Christians fled to safe havens in the countryside and some purchased their certificates, called libelli. Several councils held at Carthage debated the extent to which the community should accept these lapsed Christians.

The Great Persecution (3^rd persecution)

The persecutions culminated with Diocletian and Galerius at the end of the third and beginning of the fourth century. Their persecution, the Great Persecution is considered the largest. Beginning with a series of four edicts banning Christian practices and ordering the imprisonment of Christian clergy, the persecution intensified until all Christians in the empire were commandeded to sacrifice to the gods or face immediate execution. Over 20,000 Christians are thought to have died during Diocletian's reign. However, as Diocletian zealously persecuted Christians in the Eastern part of the empire, his co-emperors in the West did not follow the edicts and so Christians in Gaul, Spain, and Brittania were virtually unmolested.

This persecution lasted, until Constantine I came to power in 313 and legalized Christianity. It was not until Theodosius I in the later fourth century that Christianity would become the official religion of the Empire. Between these two events Julian the Apostate did temporarily renew Pagan and Christian hostilities.

Some early Christians sought out and welcomed martyrdom. Roman authorities tried hard to avoid Christians because they "goaded, chided, belittled and insulted the crowds until they demanded their death."¹⁹³ One man shouted to the Roman officials: "I want to die! I am a Christian," leading the officials to respond: "If they wanted to kill themselves, there was plenty of cliffs they could jump off."¹⁹⁴ Such seeking after death is found in Tertullian's Scorpiace but was certainly not the only view of martyrdom in the Christian church. Both Polycarp and Cyprian, bishops in Smyrna and Carthage respectively, attempted to avoid martyrdom.

The conditions under which martyrdom was an acceptable fate or under which it was suicidally embraced occupied writers of the early Christian Church. Broadly speaking, martyrs were considered uniquely exemplary of the Christian faith, and few early saints were not also martyrs.

The New Catholic Encyclopedia states that "Ancient, medieval and early modern hagiographers were inclined to exaggerate the number of martyrs. Since the title of martyr is the highest title to which a Christian can aspire, this tendency is natural". Estimates of Christians killed for religious reasons before the year 313 vary greatly, depending on the scholar quoted, from a high of almost 100,000 to a low of 10,000.

Invention during Renaissance

2009-03-21T08:20:00.000-07:00

clock.gif (1035 bytes)Clocks
The first mechanical clock was invented in the early 1300's. With this invention time began to be measured in hours (24 hours equaling a day).

Galileo, an Italian scientist, discovered the pendulum in 1581. The pendulum greatly improved the constant movement of the hands or bell of a clock. The average error with the pendulum varied only by seconds each day. Before this the error was from 10 to 15 minutes a day.

During the 1600's the metallic gear, or toothed wheel, and the use of the screw in assembling the clocks were first used.

glasses.gif (184 bytes)Eyeglasses or Spectacles
Historians are not certain who invented the first spectacles. In the late thirteen century around 1287 paintings first appeared with people wearing or holding spectacles. From these paintings we know that spectacles were invented in Italy.

Around 1300 the Venetian Glassmaker's Guild made regulations on glasses. They made it illegal for glasses to be made with glass lenses in place of the more valuable rock crystal.

In 1352 eyeglasses were only worn by the well educated, very rich noblemen or well read Italian clergy. At this time a monk named Tommaso da Modena documented the church had painted a fresco with an older churchman wearing glasses while looking over an old manuscript.

In 1456 Gutenberg invented the printing press. This created a widespread of books. Once people owned books reading glasses began to be seen in the hands of the common people. These glasses were made with a variety of materials including wood, lead, copper, bone, leather, and even horn.

In 1623 the Spanish invented the first graded lenses. This improved the trial and error method of trying on different lenses until one pair helped the wearer to see better.

tolietpaper.gif (1042 bytes)Flush Toilet
Sir John Harrington, godson to Queen Elizabeth, made the first flush toilet for himself and his godmother in 1596. He was teased by his friends and never made another one although he and Queen Elizabeth continued to use the one he did make.

Two hundred years later Alexander Cummings reinvented the flush toilet more commonly called the water closet. Cummings invented the strap. The strap was a sliding valve between the bowl and the trap.

Two years later in 1777 Samuel Prosser applied for and received a patent for a plunger closet. A year later Joseph Bramah invented a valve at the bottom of the bowl that worked on a hinge.

bomb.gif (944 bytes)Gunpowder
Gunpowder was invented around 1040. The Chinese used gunpowder in the early 1230's to launch fireworks and in weapons.

Gunpowder was probably used for the first time in Europe during the Battle of Crécy in 1346. Historians do not know if this invention was carried from China to Europe or in The Europeans invented it independently.

The invention of gunpowder greatly changed the way men fought. The Medival knight could not defend himself against firearms and cannons. Knights were replaced by the foot soldier who carried firearms.

Between 1670 and 1729 William Congreve developed rockets to use during wars.

In the seventeenth century the gun was developed by the English and Dutch armies.

microscope.gif (1035 bytes)Lenses ( Microscope and Telescope) telescope.gif (1059 bytes)
The first useful microscope was developed in the Netherlands between 1590 and 1608. Three different eyeglass makers are given credit for this invention. The inventor was probably Hans Lippershey who developed the first real telescope, or Hans Janssen and his son Zacharias.

Galileo helped popularize the microscope in the early 17th century. After Robert Hooke published his book Micrographia in 1665 men began to take the microscope seriously.

Many people feared the microscope until the 19th century when improvements made to the lenses created a clear image. At this time many advances in medicine and hygiene could be made with the microscope.

In 1608 a Dutch eyeglass maker named Hans Lippershey made the first telescope. In 11668 Isaac Newton improved the telescope by adding mirrors instead of lenses.

Galileo Galileo was the first person to use the telescope to study the heavens. He made many discoveries including that the moon had huge valleys and craters. He also discovered four moons orbiting Jupiter. Galileo discovered the planets revolve around the sun and not around the earth. His discoveries were printed in a book called Starry Messenger in 1610.

book.gif (1087 bytes)Printing Press
The printing press was invented in 1436 by a German named Johannes Gutenberg. Gutenberg was a goldsmith. Before the printing press was invented, monks had to copy everything by hand. Hand written books took months or years to hand print. This made books very expensive.

Ink, movable type, paper, and the press had been invented. Gutenberg creatively combined these inventions to devise the printing press. Gutenberg used the printing press to put ink on hundreds of individual letters. These letters were engraved in slabs of brass. These letters were arranged in words, sentences, then paragraphs. After this stage as many copies as needed could be made quickly. When a different page was need the individual letters had to be completely rearranged.

The Bible was the first book to be mass produced. The Gutenberg Bible was also known as the 42 line Bible from the number of lines on each page. It was published in 1456 in Mainz, Germany.

sub.gif (1079 bytes)Submarine
The first underwater warship was developed by Leonardo da Vinci. da Vinci kept his plans secret because he didn't want to make war any more terrifying than it already was.

In 1578 William Borne began drawing plans for a submarine. His submarine was never built. Borne's submarine worked by using extra tanks which could be filled so the submarine would submerge. The tanks would be emptied for the submarine to surface.

In 1620 Cornelis Drebbel, a Dutch inventor, built a leather covered rowboat with oars. The oars came out through watertight seals. Twelve people could ride in the submarine. Drebbel was an engineer who worked for the British navy. Drebbel was the first to discuss the problem of air replenishment while the submarine submerged. Drebbel's submarine could only go down about fifteen feet. It could stay underwater for a couple of hours.

wallpaper.gif (949 bytes)Wallpaper
In 1496 the first paper mill came into operation in England. English artist soon make wallpaper decorated with hand painted designs, stencils, and wood-block prints. For the next 200 years England was a large producer of wallpaper for Europe.

Before wallpaper was invented only the wealthy people could afforded to decorate the wall of their castles. They used woven tapestries. The tapestries kept the cold castle walls warmer. The designs woven into the tapestries told stories. The lower class hung cheaper painted cloth imitations for the walls of their homes.

End

Trivia

Three-Leaf clover: A symbol of the Trinity, the clover was a symbol of protection for the household, of a prosperous, joyous, long marriage, and of great joy and good fortune.

Pansy: Pansies symbolized memories, loving thoughts, and a yearning for a loved one. During the Renaissance, pansies were used in salads, deserts, and entrees, as well as for garnishes and table decorations. Ancient myth attributed the flower's exquisite coloring to cupid, who reportedly shot an arrow into a white flower, thus forever changing its color.

Rose: Representing love, sexual love, and secrecy, white roses represented innocence. White rose buds awaked love, peach roses desire, and pink roses a secret love."

Recipes of renaissance

Gluhwein

(Hot spiced wine)
1 bottle red wine (German)
2 cloves
2 cinnamon sticks
1/2 cup sugar
1 orange, sliced thin
1 lemon, sliced thin
1 small box raisins (optional)
4oz. Rum

Combine wine, cloves, cinnamon sticks, and sugar, and bring to a boil. Lower heat and add fruit and rum. Simmer one hour, strain, serve.

**********************

Built between 1475 and 1483, in the time of Pope Sixtus IV della Rovere, the Sistine Chapel has originally served as Palatine Chapel. The chapel is rectangular in shape and measures 40.93 meters long by 13.41 meters wide, i.e. the exact dimensions of the Temple of Solomon, as given in the Old Testament. It is 20.70 meters high and is roofed by a flattened barrel vault, with little side vaults over the centered windows.
The architectural plans were made by Baccio Pontelli and the construction work was supervised by Giovannino de' Dolci. The first Mass in the Sistine Chapel was celebrated on August 9, 1483.
The wall paintings were executed by Pietro Perugino, Sandro Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Cosimo Rosselli, Luca Signorelli and their respective workshops, which included Pinturicchio, Piero di Cosimo and Bartolomeo della Gatta.
Michelangelo Buonarroti was commissioned by Pope Julius II della Rovere in 1508 to repaint the ceiling; the work was completed between 1508 and 1512. He painted the Last Judgement over the altar, between 1535 and 1541, being commissioned by Pope Paul III Farnese.

Accomplishment of SIR WALTER RALEIGH

ACCOMPLISHMENTS

In that colorful life of his he gained the title of a Renaissance man, which is a universal well-rounded man. This was a goal that every man wanted to achieve. The things needed to gain this title were steep. Firstly, you had to have cultural grace. Raleigh was prominent in the royal court. Secondly, you had to be a gentleman. There are rumors that Raleigh put his coat over a mud puddle for the queen to step over and Raleigh was a knight. You had to be of noble birth or of a noble position. Raleigh was a favourite of the queen, prominent in the royal court and was the captain of the army of Ireland. Courage was also one of the characteristics. Raleigh was an explorer who led expeditions to North America and South America. He also established colonies on Roanoke Island on two separate occasions (1585 and 1587). When he was facing execution he joked with the executioner and gave the signal for the axe to fall. A Renaissance man must be well-educated. Raleigh attended Oxford and studied law. You had to be articulate. Raleigh had a good grasp of the English language. He wrote books: History of The World, Discovery of Guinea, and a poem "The Last Fight of the Revenge." Usually a Renaissance man must have an understanding of the arts and the sciences; he was a good writer. He also introduced potatoes and tobacco to England.

Scrap Book About Poverty,Miseducation,Overpopulation

2009-03-21T08:19:00.000-07:00

UNDERSTANDING PROVERTY IN THE PHILIPPINES

October 2001. The Population Commission (Popcom) said there are 30.6 million Filipinos or 6.12 million families who are suffering from poverty. I took consolation with the notion that we are not alone, yet this dismayed over the complacency of our national government officials who seem undisturbed by the fact that 40 percent of their constituents live below the poverty line throughout the country's 78 provinces, 84 cities or 41,940 barangays. How can they sit back and relax?

There are about 77 million Filipinos today, and this number is growing by 2.05 percent annually. This means that some 1.5 million Filipinos are born every year, 600,000 of whom to poor parents. Some 32.5 million Filipinos, comprising 66.3 percent of the population, are considered matured enough to work. But 3.3 million of these people, or 10.1 percent of the workforce, cannot find jobs while 5.2 million others, or 17.7 percent, have no regular source of income.

By international standards, these are critical problems. The Taiwanese government is in the brink of panic, because the unemployment rate in that country just north of Luzon is threatening to hit 5 percent, year-on-year. Yet, our Filipino government officials are sitting relaxed inside posh restaurants and five-star hotels, as 8.5 million Filipinos or 28 percent of the workforce are trying to figure out where to source the next meal for their families.

According to the World Bank, the Philippines had a per capita GNP of US$1,050 in 1999, compared to China's US$780, Indonesia's US$600, Vietnam's US$370, Lao's US$290 or Cambodia's US$280. Yet, the Philippines' poverty incidence rate of 40 percent is higher than China's 3 percent, Indonesia's 23 percent, Vietnam's 37 percent, Lao's 38 percent or Cambodia's 36 percent. Why is that? Wealth in the Philippines is concentrated on the hands of the few, that's why. It is the World Bank, and not the NDF, which gave such explanation.

Now consider this, the prestigious Forbes magazine has included at least five Filipinos in the list of world billionaires (US dollars). Let us rejoice! Imagine, highly industrial and welfare states like France, Finland, the Netherlands, Norway and Sweden do not have a single representative to the billionaires' circle.

Among Southeast Asian countries, poverty incidence is most extreme in the Philippines where some 15.3 million Filipinos (half of the poor population) wake up every morning without food on the table. These people are called subsistence individuals or whose income cannot provide for basic food requirements. Popcom's data is even conservative because in its interpretation, a family of six earning a total of P72,000 a year is not considered poor. In contrast, a study conducted by the National Wages and Productivity Commission (NWPC) pegged the minimum income that a family of six must earn annually at P191,874 in order to live decently in Metro Manila.

The labor sector has been demanding for a P125 daily wage hike or 50 percent of the current level but the group of employers claimed that such wage adjustment would force many establishments out of business. Listening more to the rhetoric of the rich rather than to the howl of the poor, the Regional Tripartite Wage Board has approved only a P30 daily wage increase in the metropolis. The Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) event want us to believe that the previous minimum daily wage of US$5 (P250) in Manila is much higher than China's US$1. Ironically, the Philippines reported a poverty incidence rate of 40 percent, much higher than China's 3 percent.

What makes things more difficult for us is the high prices of commodities. The country's inflation rate, estimated at 6 to 7 percent annually, is the highest in Asia. Japan, a super rich country, is ironically having a deflation.

Let us make some computation. A person who is covered by the minimum wage would not take home P250 a day. Most likely, the wage, after tax and pension deductions, on top of travel and meal expenses, would amount to something like P150. A person who passes by a fastfood center, which is not in anyway a luxurious restaurant, might spend at least P50, or 33 percent of his take-home income on a roll of rice and a fried chicken wing. That explains his purchasing power. Imagine spending all of your daily income in just three meals at an inexpensive restaurant. Food is supposed to account for less than 20 percent of a man's expenses.

While it might be true that a P125 daily wage adjustment will be bad for business (the Central Banks warned it would push inflation rate to 18 percent), this might be the only option that the poor has against poverty. Unless the government can do something like bringing the prices of food and other basic commodities, there is no other recourse but to increase the poor's purchasing power. The government needs to do its own computation, and put some system in managing the affairs of the nation.

Sadly, it seems that our government officials haven't learned anything from the past. Only last year, about 500 people were killed when a 50-meter pile of garbage collapsed on their makeshift houses in a dumpsite in Quezon City. This was the absolute face of poverty, whose image failed to instill understanding among our numb leaders. Now, who could blame the 20,000 protesters who stormed to Malacanang Palace last May 1. The people in the media, who were not even aware on what the attack was about, had the guts to brand these protesters a mob of poor and undisciplined warriors.

It also seems that the current crop of leaders have nothing to offer, and one opposition senator even admitted that in 30 years, the Philippines will not even reach the level of Thailand, which I understand, is still a poor country. This is anything but encouraging. Imagine spending the next 30 years of your life in poverty (if the tension in Central Asia does not lead into another world war, of course). We wait for a day that one leader will rise to change our mindset and status in life. Someone who will promise to turn the Philippines into a country of mostly rich people in his lifetime and can convince us that he really can.

THE CAUSE OF PROVERTY IN THE PHILIPPINES

Poverty
- Poverty in the Philippines
- Causes for poverty in the Philippines
- Some solution that can solve the poverty in Philippines
- Reasons and solutions for poverty for most countries such as India and other countries suffering from widespread poverty

One of the most recent questions tonight is:
"Some solution that can solve the poverty in Philippines"

To answer that question we first need to analyze sincerely but critique the various causes for poverty in the Philippines as well as in most other countries.

Poverty can be manifold - poverty in the Philippines can be divided by priority into following causes:

- Poverty in the Philippines caused by laziness to work harder and more hours
- Poverty in the Philippines caused by lack of quality consciousness
- Poverty in the Philippines caused by lack of love FOR God and thus FOR all his children on earth
- Poverty in the Philippines caused by abuse by rich ones
- Poverty in the Philippines caused by mismanagement of government due to lack of sincere interest for the benefit of ALL
- Poverty in the Philippines caused by social injustice created by mankind / industry / money world / investors / rich ones
- Poverty in the Philippines caused by accidents / disasters / war / political instability
- Poverty in the Philippines caused by personal karma.

From one perspective, poverty is a function of total output of an economy relative to its population--GNP per capita--and the distribution of that income among families. In the World Bank's World Development Report, 1990, the Philippines was ranked at the lower end of the grouping of lower middle-income economies. Given its relative position, the country should be able to limit the extent of poverty with a reasonably equitable sharing of the nation's income. In fact, the actual distribution of income was highly skewed (see table 12, Appendix). Although considerable underreporting was thought to occur among upper-income families, and incorrect reporting from lack of information was common, particularly with respect to noncash income, the data were adequate to provide a broad overview.

In 1988 the most affluent 20 percent of families in the Philippines received more than 50 percent of total personal income, with most going to the top 10 percent. Below the richest 10 percent of the population, the share accruing to each decile diminished rather gradually. A 1988 World Bank poverty report suggested that there had been a small shift toward a more equal distribution of income since 1961. The beneficiaries appear to have been middle-income earners, however, rather than the poor.

The World Bank report concluded, and many economists associated with the Philippines concurred, that the country's high population growth rate was a major cause of the widespread poverty, particularly in the rural areas. Implementation of a government-sponsored family-planning program, however, was thwarted by stiff opposition from the hierarchy of the Roman Catholic Church (see Population Control , ch. 2). Church pronouncements in the late 1980s and early 1990s focused on injustice, graft and corruption, and mismanagement of resources as the fundamental causes of Philippine underdevelopment. These issues were in turn linked to the concentration of control of economic resources and the structure of the economy. Land ownership was highly unequal, but land reform initiatives had made little progress.

In urban areas also, the extent of poverty was related to the concentrated control of wealth. Considerable portions of both industry and finance were highly monopolized. Access to finance was severely limited to those who already possessed resources. The most profitable investment opportunities were often in areas in which tariff or other forms of government protection ensured high profits but did not necessarily result in rapidly expanding employment opportunities. In her election campaign President Aquino pledged to destroy the monopolies and structures of privilege aggravated by the Marcos regime. She looked to the private sector to revitalize the economy, create jobs for the masses of Filipinos, and lead the society to a higher standard of living. The state-protected monopolies were dismantled, but not the monopoly structure of the Philippine economy that existed long before Marcos assumed power. In their privileged positions, the business elite did not live up to the President's expectations. As a consequence, unemployment and, more importantly for the issue of poverty, underemployment remained widespread.

ACTIONS TAKEN TO FIGHT POVERTY IN THE PHILIPPINES

THERE ARE CAMPAIGNS, and there are campaigns. have. From mobilizing for students rights and welfare to anti-US military bases, from indigenous people’s right to self-determination to freedom from East Timor, from fund raising for ailing activists and artists to peace campaign for Mindanao.

But the Stand Up, Take Action campaign has a different take. One, it is competing against itself to break the Guinness Book of World Records for the most number of people who stood up against poverty; second the need to coordinate the actions of various people’s movements and governments, and consolidate these efforts; third, the follow through, meaning building up from what has been achieved to perhaps set an even bigger record next year.

And we are not talking of the discourse yet as to how breaking the Guinness record can actually end poverty!

But the persistence of the global organizers and the enthusiasm of the people’s movements all over will spell the difference. The GCAP experience in the Philippines runs along the same course.

The 50-50 Campaign

The 50-50 campaign was a product of the brainstorming of the coordinating committee in July. It took its cue from World Vision’s 50 Little Things, a guide book for children on how to help make a better Philippines.

Coalition members readily agreed to seek personal commitments to end poverty and submit these to the government as testimonies of a people wanting to end poverty, and demand from the government to fulfill its promises .

Interestingly, after the agreement in the CC level, Chona Ramos of SENCA informed us of the international campaign In My Name which is similar in many ways to our 50-50 campaign. At least, we are confident we are in the same wavelength !

The Philippine secretariat took the initiative to draft the content of the sign up form, passed it to CC for deliberation , editing and approval.

When the forms were out, we noticed a slow turn in of signed-up forms. It was then we realized there’s just too much text in the form, and demands too much to read and tick off. But it is too late to change. We complemented it with an online petition and a Facebook cause invitation

Meanwhile, on the ground, coalition members continued to gather signatures. By the evening of October 17, Stand Up day, here are the figures we gathered (including figures from World Vision and UNYAP:

* 50-50 sign up forms - 26,462
* Facebook - 790
* Online Petition - 187

Mobilization

Preparations for the October 17 mobilization started Monday, 13 october, the International Day of Action Aghainst Debt and IFIs when GCAP-Phils partnered with Freedom from Debt Coalition for a round table discussion on Debt and Climate Change.

This was followed by street mobilization on October 16, World Food Day with some 200 people demanding government program for food sovereignty and sustainability. In the afternoon of the 16th, GCAP also took part in a round table discussion organized by ODA Watch.

On Day 1 of Stand Up Day, October 17, some 1,500 fisherfolk and supporters from GCAP marched to and picketed the Department of Agriculture. The picket dramatized the fisherfolk’s demand to scrap the free trade agreements, specifically the recent one with Japan (JPEPA).

Simultaneous with the picket, the youth organized a sign-up campaign in a public high school in Quezon City and gathered 1,871 signatures. Down south, youth volunteers also in Cagayan de Oro also organized their own sign up centers and gathered 2,751 signatures.

In the evening, some 2,000 plus people gathered at the Liwasang Bonifacio for the finals of the Rap Against Poverty competition, back to back with Palag Na! an anti-VAT concert. Prior to the competition, we had a showing of the video Missed Targets, produced earlier by GCAP and Social Watch on the failure of the Arroyo government to meet its promises to the poor.

On Saturday and Sunday, artists involved in the rights and welfare of the indigenous peoples organized an art camp. Some 5,000 attended the two whole day event.

Media

Notice for the rap finals saw print in two tabloids and a major daily. The National Coordinator was interviewed over the ABS-CBN News Channel (ANC) in the morning of October 17 with two rappers (significantly, the two won top prize) and over dzBB, a radio station in the afternoon.

Likewise the signature campaign gained the support of local movie and television celebrities

The Stand Up Take Action Day also merited solidarity messages from two Senators, Loren Legarda and Mar Roxas. Both are rumored to be eyeing the presidency in 2010.

Projection and Continuity

While Stand Up Day is over and done with, the campaign for the eradication of poverty continues, and will now build up for the December Human Rights Day.

The signature campaign will continue until we reach the target one million signature. The rap music composed by the finalists will be produced in an album (with additional songs, also talking of poverty eradication, by members of the board of judges).

But first, we need to get back to the list of those who signed up to thank them and maintain relationship with them, at least through online communications to keep them in the loop of the anti-poverty advocacy.

EDUCATION

IN

THE

PHILIPPINES

EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

In 1991 the education system was reaching a relatively large part of the population, at least at the elementary level. According to 1988 Philippine government figures, which count as literate everyone who has completed four years of elementary school, the overall literacy rate was 88 percent, up from 82.6 percent in 1970. Literacy rates were virtually the same for women and men. Elementary education was free and, in the 1987 academic year, was provided to some 15 million schoolchildren, 96.4 percent of the age-group. High school enrollment rates were approximately 56 percent nationwide but were somewhat lower on Mindanao and in Eastern Visayas region. Enrollment in institutions of higher learning exceeded 1.6 million.

Filipinos have a deep regard for education, which they view as a primary avenue for upward social and economic mobility. From the onset of United States colonial rule, with its heavy emphasis on mass public education, Filipinos internalized the American ideal of a democratic society in which individuals could get ahead through attainment of a good education. Middle-class parents make tremendous sacrifices in order to provide secondary and higher education for their children.

Philippine education institutions in the late 1980s varied in quality. Some universities were excellent, others were considered "diploma mills" with low standards. Public elementary schools often promoted students regardless of achievement, and students, especially those in poor rural areas, had relatively low test scores.

The proportion of the national government budget going to education has varied from a high of 31.53 percent in 1957 to a low of 7.61 percent in 1981. It stood at 15.5 percent in 1987. The peso amount, however, has steadily increased, and the lower percentage reflects the effect of a larger total government budget. Although some materials were still in short supply, by 1988 the school system was able to provide one textbook per subject per student. In 1991 the Philippine government and universities had numerous scholarship programs to provide students from low-income families with access to education. The University of the Philippines followed a "socialized tuition" plan whereby students from higher income families paid higher fees and students from the lowest income families were eligible for free tuition plus a living allowance.
Historical Background

Many of the Filipinos who led the revolution against Spain in the 1890s were ilustrados. Ilustrados, almost without exception, came from wealthy Filipino families that could afford to send them to the limited number of secondary schools (colegios) open to non-Spaniards. Some of them went on to the University of Santo Tomás in Manila or to Spain for higher education. Although these educational opportunities were not available to most Filipinos, the Spanish colonial government had initiated a system of free, compulsory primary education in 1863. By 1898 enrollment in schools at all levels exceeded 200,000 students.

Between 1901 and 1902, more than 1,000 American teachers, known as "Thomasites" for the S.S. Thomas, which transported the original groups to the Philippines, fanned out across the archipelago to open barangay schools. They taught in English and, although they did not completely succeed in Americanizing their wards, instilled in the Filipinos a deep faith in the general value of education. Almost immediately, enrollments began to mushroom from a total of only 150,000 in 1900-1901 to just under 1 million in elementary schools two decades later. After independence in 1946, the government picked up this emphasis on education and opened schools in even the remotest areas of the archipelago during the 1950s and the 1960s.
Education in the Modern Period

The expansion in the availability of education was not always accompanied by qualitative improvements. Therefore, quality became a major concern in the 1970s and early 1980s. Data for the 1970s show significant differences in literacy for different regions of the country and between rural and urban areas. Western Mindanao Region, for example, had a literacy rate of 65 percent as compared with 90 percent for Central Luzon and 95 percent for Metro Manila. A survey of elementary-school graduates taken in the mid-1970s indicated that many of the respondents had failed to absorb much of the required course work and revealed major deficiencies in reading, mathematics, and language. Performance was poorest among respondents from Mindanao and only somewhat better for those from the Visayan Islands, whereas the best performance was in the Central Luzon and Southern Tagalog regions.

Other data revealed a direct relationship between literacy levels, educational attainment, and incidence of poverty. As a rule, families with incomes below the poverty line could not afford to educate their children beyond elementary school. Programs aimed at improving work productivity and family income could alleviate some of the problems in education, such as the high dropout rates that reflected, at least in part, family and work needs. Other problems, such as poor teacher performance, reflected overcrowded classrooms, lack of particular language skills, and low wages. These problems, in turn, resulted in poor student performance and high repeater rates and required direct action.

Vocational education in the late 1980s was receiving greater emphasis then in the past. Traditionally, Filipinos have tended to equate the attainment of education directly with escape from manual labor. Thus it has not been easy to win general popular support for vocational training.

Catholic and Protestant churches sponsored schools, and there were also proprietary (privately owned, nonsectarian) schools. Neither the proprietary nor the religious schools received state aid except for occasional subsidies for special programs. Only about 6 percent of elementary students were in private schools, but the proportion rose sharply to about 63 percent at the secondary level and approximately 85 percent at the tertiary level. About a third of the private school tertiary-level enrollment was in religiously affiliated schools.

In 1990 over 10,000 foreign students studied in the Philippines, mostly in the regular system, although there were three schools for international students--Brent in Baguio and Faith Academy and the International School in Manila. These schools had some Filipino students and faculty, but the majority of the students and faculty were foreign, mostly American. Faith Academy served primarily the children of missionaries, although others were admitted as space was available.
Chinese in the Philippines have established their own system of elementary and secondary schools. Classes in the morning covered the usual Filipino curriculum and were taught by Filipino teachers. In the afternoon, classes taught by Chinese teachers offered instruction in Chinese language and literature.
In 1990 the education system offered six years of elementary instruction followed by four years of high school. Children entered primary school at the age of seven. Instruction was bilingual in Pilipino and English, although it was often claimed that English was being slighted. Before independence in 1946, all instruction was in English; since then, the national language, Pilipino, has been increasingly emphasized. Until the compulsory study of Spanish was abolished in 1987, secondary and highereducation students had to contend with three languages--Pilipino, English, and Spanish.
In 1991 all education was governed by the Department of Education, Culture, and Sports, which had direct supervision over public schools and set mandatory policies for private schools as well. Bureaus of elementary, secondary, and higher education supervised functional and regional offices. District supervisors exercised direct administrative oversight of principals and teachers in their district. There was a separate office for nonformal education, which served students not working for a graduation certificate from a conventional school. Financing for public schools came from the national treasury, although localities could supplement national appropriations.
Education policies fluctuated constantly and were likely to be changed before teachers became accustomed to them. Areas of disagreement among Filipinos produced educational change as one faction or another gained control of a highly centralized public education administration. One example was the community school program that sought to involve schools in agricultural improvement. It was pushed vigorously in the 1950s, but little has been heard about it since. Another policy issue was the choice of a language of instruction. Until independence, English was, at least in theory, the language of instruction from first grade through college. The emphasis on English was followed by a shift toward local languages (of which there were eighty-seven), with simultaneous instruction in English and Pilipino in later grades. Then, at least in official directives, in 1974 schools were told to drop the local language, and a bilingual--English and Pilipino--program was adopted.
One of the most serious problems in the Philippines in the 1980s and early 1990s concerned the large number of students who completed college but then could not find a job commensurate with their educational skills. If properly utilized, these trained personnel could facilitate economic development, but when left idle or forced to take jobs beneath their qualifications, this group could be a major source of discontent.

POVERTY

IN

THE

PHILIPPINES

THE CAUSE OF MISSEDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

The education in general helps us work , but lets take from other point of view , if most of the philpino people don't study , the country is going to face a problem where the demanded skills dont match the skills available with the people , therefore too unemployment will result in less country output or economical output ...

ACTIONS TAKEN TO PREVENT MISSEDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

APEC Education Forum - "Education Ministers from 14 member economies of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) met in Washington in 1992 August at the invitation of the United States. They agreed to form an APEC Education Forum within APEC's Human Resources Development Working Group and to coordinate joint activities in the field of education. APEC itself was formed in 1989 as a new mechanism for multilateral cooperation among the economies of the Asia-Pacific Region"

# Aquinas University of Legazpi
# Asian Institute of Management
# Ateneo de Cagayan de Oro
# Ateneo de Manila University
# Ateneo de Naga
# Ateneo de Zamboanga
# Bicol University - in Legazpi City, this is the State University
# Cebu Normal University

# Center for Philippine Studies, University of Hawai'i (USA) - established in 1975 in recognition of the faculty strength and other academic resources on the Philippines at the University of Hawai'i, and of the contributions of Filipinos to the development of Hawai'i. It is the only academic institution in the United States offering a program of instruction, research, and outreach devoted to the study of the Philippines and over Filipinos

# Central Luzon State University
# Central Philippines University

# Central Visayas Polytechnic College - the State College in Negros Oriental, Dumaguete City

# De la Salle University

# Filipinas Heritage Library - "a knowledge network of the nation, the Library is a gift to the country from the Ayala Group of Companies for the Philippine centennial. Formerly located at Ayala Museum, the Library opened to the public in 1996 at the historic Nielson Tower"

# International Institute of Rural Reconstruction (IIRR) - improves the quality of life of the rural poor in developing countries through rural reconstruction: a sustainable, integrated and people-centered development strategy generated through practical field experience

# International Rice Research Institute - a nonprofit agricultural research and training center established to improve the well-being of present and future generations of rice farmers and consumers, particularly those with low incomes. It is dedicated to helping farmers in developing countries produce more food on limited land using less water, less labor, and fewer chemical inputs, without harming the environment. IRRI employs about 975 scientific and support staff members, 88% of whom are Filipinos. About 115 scientists are recruited internationally; about half of them are from developing countries

# Mindanao State University, Iligan Institute of Technology

# Misamis University

# Philippine Institute for Development Studies - a nonstock, nonprofit government research institution engaged in long-term, policy-oriented research. It was established on September 26, 1977 by virtue of Presidential Decree No. 1201. Through its activities, it hopes to expand policy-oriented research on social and economic development so that it can directly assist the government in planning and policymaking

# Philippine Studies Association of Australia - Australian and Philippines experts studying all aspects of the development of the Philippines; the site provides insight in their history, achievements, and activities; interesting resources

# Philippine Women's University

# Philippines Studies Directory of Japan - plus links to researchers in the United States of America

# Saint Louis University, Baguio City

# Silliman University, Dumaguete City

# Social Weather Station - "established in August 1985 as a private non-stock, nonprofit social research institution. Its members, called Fellows, are social scientists in economics, political science, sociology, statistics, market research, and other fields"

# Technical Education and Skills Development Authority - "a major thrust of TESDA is the formulation of a comprehensive development plan for middle-level manpower based upon a National Technical Education and Skills Development Plan. This plan shall provide for a reformed industry-based training program that includes apprenticeship, dual training system and other similar schemes"

# University of Batangas

# University of the East

# University of the Immaculate Conception, Davao City

# University of Nueva Caceres

# University of the Philippines at Diliman

* Center for Local and Regional Governance

* Institute of International Legal Studies

* Research Dissemination & Utilization Office of the Office of the Vice Chancellor for Research and Development

* School of Urban and Regional Planning

# University of the Philippines at Los Baños

# University of the Philippines at Manila

* College of Public Health

* National Teacher Training Center for the Health Professions (NTTC-HP)

* School of Health Science

# University of the Philippines: Open University

# University of the Philippines in the Visayas

# University of San Carlos, Cebu City

OVER POPULATION

IN

THE

PHILIPPINES

UNSERSTANDING THE OVER POPULATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

Population Growth

The Philippine population in the early 1990s continued to grow at a rapid, although somewhat reduced rate from that which had prevailed in the preceding decades. In 1990 the Philippine population was more than 66 million, up from 48 million in 1980. This figure represents an annual growth rate of 2.5 percent, down from 2.6 percent in 1980 and from more than 3 percent in the 1960s. Even at the lower growth rate, the Philippine population will increase to an estimated 77 million by the year 2000 and will double every twenty-nine years into the next century. Moreover, in 1990 the population was still a youthful one, with 57 percent under the age of twenty. The birth rate in early 1991 was 29 per 1,000, and the death rate was 7 per 1,000. The infant mortality rate was 48 deaths per 1,000 live births. Population density increased from 160 per square kilometer in 1980 to 220 in 1990. The rapid population growth and the size of the younger population has required the Philippines to double the amount of housing, schools, and health facilities every twenty-nine years just to maintain a constant level.

Migration

There were two significant migration trends that affected population figures in the 1970s and the 1980s. First was a trend of migration from village to city, which put extra stress on urban areas. As of the early 1980s, thirty cities had 100,000 or more residents, up from twenty-one in 1970. Metro Manila's population was 5,924,563, up from 4,970,006 in 1975, marking an annual growth rate of 3.6 percent. This figure was far above the national average of 2.5 percent. Within Metro Manila, the city of Manila itself was growing more slowly, at a rate of only 1.9 percent per annum, but two other cities within this complex, Quezon City and Caloocan, were booming at rates of 4 percent and 3.5 percent, respectively.

A National Housing Authority report revealed that, in the early 1980s, one out of four Metro Manila residents was a squatter. This figure represented a 150 percent increase in a decade in the number of people living in shantytown communities, evidence of continuing, virtually uncontrolled, rural-urban migration. The city of Manila had more than 500,000 inhabitants and Quezon City had 371,000 inhabitants in such neighborhoods. Moreover, rural-urban migrants, responding to better employment opportunities in peripheral metropolitan cities such as Navotas, had boosted the percentage of squatters in that city's total population.

A second major migration pattern consisted of resettlement from the more densely to the less densely populated regions. As a result of a population-land ratio that declined from about one cultivated hectare per agricultural worker in the 1950s to about 0.5 hectare by the early 1980s, thousands of Filipinos had migrated to the agricultural frontier on Mindanao. According to the 1980 census, six of the twelve fastest growing provinces were in the western, northern, or southern Mindanao regions, and a seventh was the frontier province of Palawan. Sulu, South Cotabato, Misamis Oriental, Surigao del Norte, Agusan del Norte, and Agusan del Sur provinces all had annual population growth rates of 4 percent or more, a remarkable statistic given the uncertain law-and-order situation on Mindanao. Among the fastestgrowing cities in the late 1970s were General Santos (10 percent annual growth rate), Iligan (6.9), Cagayan de Oro (6.7), Cotabato (5.7), Zamboanga (5.4), Butuan (5.4), and Dipolog (5.1)--all on Mindanao.

By the early 1980s, the Mindanao frontier had ceased to offer a safety valve for land-hungry settlers. Hitherto peaceful provinces had become dangerous tinderboxes in which mounting numbers of Philippine army troops and New People's Army insurgents carried on a sporadic shooting war with each other and with bandits, "lost commands," millenarian religious groups, upland tribes, loggers, and Muslims. Population pressures also created an added obstacle to land reform. For years, there had been demands to restructure land tenure so that landlords with large holdings could be eliminated and peasants could become farm owners. In the past, land reform had been opposed by landlords. In the 1990s there simply was not enough land to enable a majority of the rural inhabitants to become landowners. International migration has offered better economic opportunities to a number of Filipinos without, however, reaching the point where it would relieve population pressure. Since the liberalization of United States immigration laws in 1965, the number of people in the United States having Filipino ancestry had grown substantially to 1,406,770 according to the 1990 United States census. In the fiscal year ending September 30, 1990, the United States Embassy in Manila issued 45,189 immigrant and 85,128 temporary visas, the largest number up to that time.

In addition to permanent residents, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, more than half a million temporary migrants went abroad to work but maintained a Philippine residence. This number included contract workers in the Middle East and domestic servants in Hong Kong and Singapore, as well as nurses and physicians who went to the United States for training and work experience, a fair proportion of whom managed to become permanent residents. The remittances sent back to the Philippines by migrants have been a substantial source of foreign exchange.

Population Control

Popcom was the government agency with primary responsibility for controlling population growth. In 1985 Popcom set a target for reducing the growth rate to 1 percent by 2000. To reach that goal in the 1990s, Popcom recommended that families have a maximum of two children, that they space the birth of children at three-year intervals, and that women delay marriage to age twenty-three and men to age twenty-five.

During the Marcos regime (1965-86), there was a rather uneasy accommodation between the Catholic hierarchy and the government population control program. Bishops served on Popcom, and the rhythm method was included by clinics as a birth-control method about which they could give information. A few Catholic priests, notably Frank Lynch, even called for energetic support of population limitation.

The fall of Marcos coincided with a general rise of skepticism about the relation between population growth and economic development. It became common to state that exploitation, rather than population pressure, was the cause of poverty. The bishops withdrew from the Popcom board, opposed an effort to reduce the number of children counted as dependents for tax purposes, secured the removal of the population-planning clause from the draft of the Constitution, and attempted to end government population programs. Attacks on the government population program were defeated, and efforts to popularize family planning, along with the provision of contraceptive materials, continued. In the early 1990s, however, the program generally lacked the firm government support needed to make it effective.

CAUSE OF OVERPOPULATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

Comment on Government and Church initiative regarding overpopulation:
Overpopulation is and should be everyone's concern. It's not something that we should blame only on the poor or the government or especially only on those who have seemingly taken God's directive to "go forth and multiply" to heart.
In 1970, Philippine government launched the Philippine Population Program (POPCOM) and later the National Family Planning Program. According to my research, the Catholic Bishop's Conference of the Philippines had repeatedly opposed the proposal of the government regarding the use of articial method to control the issue on population growth.
Even if there are numerous programs that the government will propose, Roman Catholic would still oppose those proposals because it’s against their teachings and the scriptures. Catholic Church in the Philippines preaches against abortions and other types of contraception. The government can't change the way they think and their stand on these issues. They even said that they won't give communion to those social workers that promote the use of condoms and other birth control methods. I believe that they are not "close- minded" individuals, they just settle for the safest way in alleviating overpopulation.
However, they could be other ways to solve the overpopulation issue. One is through education about pregnancy and its prevention. The government should make programs that would educate the people especially, the poor families on how to have good family planning. I propose that they also educate teenagers on the consequences of unwanted pregnancy and pre-marital sex. Lack of education is one of the leading causes of overpopulation. Instead of corrupting the nation's money, they should allocate it to programs that would make the lives of its nation better. Another is through creating jobs to numerous unemployed Filipinos. Overpopulation is closely related to poverty. The government should provide the Filipinos with jobs that they have proimised for them to earn an income sufficient enough to meet the needs of the members of the family.

The biggest cause of overpopulation in the Philippines is the lack of education. People there don't have the knowledge on how to use a contraceptives. The big and powerful Roman Catholic Church (which basically controls the country) disapproves of any form of sexual education and birth contraceptives. This explains the lack of sexual education and the government constant refusal to provide free birth control for it's citizens.
The biggest cause of overpopulation in the Philippines is the lack of education. People there don't have the knowledge on how to use a contraceptives. The big and powerful Roman Catholic Church (which basically controls the country) disapproves of any form of sexual education and birth contraceptives. This explains the lack of sexual education and the government constant refusal to provide free birth control for it's citizens.

Cultural maping CEBU

2009-03-21T08:18:00.002-07:00

Cultural Heritage mapping

Cebu City

Name of town and city: Cebu City.Originally, Cebu was called Sugbo. Cebuanos lived in stilt houses made of bamboo, wood and nipa. Men were extensively tattooed and women were lavishly ornamented with gold jewelries, silks and lip color. Unreasonable trade restrictions of the colonizing Spanish caused the rapid decline of Cebu as a trading port. However, in 19th century, restrictions were lifted and brought back the commercial life of the city. The Spanish troops headed by Ferdinand Magellan arrived Cebu in 1521 with a friendly reception from the island villagers. He made friends with Rajah Humabon and converted most of the locals to Christians including the leader’s family. But when Magellan reached the narrow strait to Mactan Island, the reception was not similar. He encountered a negative response and had a hard time entering the area. Lapu Lapu, the chief, resisted his entry and fought against the Spanish troops leaving Magellan lifeless on the ground. Cebu’s invasion was delayed until Legazpi and Fray Andres de Urdaneta arrived in 1566. The historic Fort San Pedro has served many purposes to the Cebuanos. It was constructed in 1565 upon the arrival of Legazpi on the ship San Pedro but remained unfinished until 1738. Originally intended to protect the island from Muslim raiders, the port also served as the barracks and defense post of the US army during the American occupation; a prison camp during the 3 year Japanese invasion; the city zoo; and now a small park. For many centuries, renovations have removed the waterfront lying few blocks from the Fort. Cebu was founded On April 7, 1521, Ferdinand Magellan landed in Cebu. The founder of Cebu City. It has a land area land area of 291.2 km². Of this, 55.9 km² is classified as urban, while 235.2 km² is classified as rural. Its boundaries are to the northeast of the city are Mandaue City and the town of Consolacion, to the west are Toledo City, the towns of Balamban, and Asturias, to the south are Talisay City and the town of Minglanilla. Across Mactan Strait to the east is Mactan Island where Lapu-Lapu City is located.

Built Heritage

Name of Heritage: Fort San Pedro
Present name: Fort San Pedro
Other name: bastions La Conception, San Ignacio de Loyola and San Miguel
It can be located in the area now called Plaza Indepedencia, in the Pier Area of Cebu City
Street Magallanes St. Cebu City it is on the province of Cebu City

Ownership History: Miguel Lopez de Legazpi - Spanish Government – to the next government and till the present government. Its original owner Spanish conquistador, Miguel Lopez de Legazpi. Now the present owner of this heritage is under the care and administration of the City of Cebu, as historical park.

Constructions Data : It has a total area of 2,025 sq. meters; the walls are 20 ft. high,
8 ft. thick and each of the towers stands 30 ft. from the ground. It was built in year 1738
It was Built by the Spanish and indigenous Cebuano labourers

Description: The fort is triangular in shape, with two sides facing the sea and the third side fronting the land. The two sides facing the sea were defended with artillery and the side with a strong palisade made of wood. The purpose of its structure is built as military defense structure. Now the Present use or function of Port San Pedro is converted into a museum. Inside the fort houses the legacies of the Spanish Government. The well preserved Spanish artifacts such as the documents written in Spanish, paintings and sculpture. Also inside the fort are prison dungeons, living rooms, bedrooms, school rooms, a chapel and an oasis garden. A large statue of Legazpi and Antonio Pigafetta is erected outside the fort. The museum also houses old coins dating back to the time of the Spanish colonization of the Philippines. The condition of Fort San Pedro was in good condition because it was taken care by the government
Artistic:
Social:
Historical:
Technical:

Lay outs:

Recommendation: There is nothing we can recommend to this place. The place was also taken care the government
Other Pictures:

Festival
Sinulog Festival

Name of festival: Sinulog Festival
The history of sinulog is a coincides with the feast of the Santo Niño de Cebu, patron saint of the city of Cebu. The feast day of the Santo Niño commemorates the baptism of the chieftain of the province, his queen, and his subjects in 1521. At this ceremony, an image of the Santo Niño was presented as a gift to Queen Juana by the explorer Ferdinand Magellan. This is the popular festival of Cebu. This festival is observed on every third Sunday of January. The holy image of Sto Nino de Cebu is worshipped at this festival. The most significant attraction of this festival is the mardi - grass type parade. The people, who take part in the parade, get dressed in colorful costumes and entertain the people by dancing to the beat of the drums.
The significance the Sinulog Carneval in Cebu celebrated in honor of Sto. Niño, the patron saint of Cebu, every third Sunday of January

Cuisine
Puso

Name of Dish: Puso. It can be describe as a bunch of heart-shaped containers, woven from coconut palm leaves, provide a unique way of cooking and eating rice. The recipe of making this food are the rice grains, skillfully measured and carefully placed into the container, are boiled to make what is jocularly referred to as "hanging rice" or "portable rice.” The significance of this food is a rice, called puso for the shape of the container (puso is the Cebuano word for the banana blossom), makes for a handy way of carrying rice to a picnic and of eating with one's fingers, sans fork, or flatware.

Other Photo

Roman Contribution to civilization

2009-03-21T08:18:00.001-07:00

Government Art Christianity
Republic Dali's Crucifixion Constantine -- allow Christianity to spread in Rome
Senate (inspiration for modern democracies)
Elections

Writing
- Roman alphabet
- Latin language and descendants

Architecture
Buildings
-Aqueducts -- water supply to its cities
-temples -
-roads with bridges -- communication across the far flung empire
- basilica – Act as town hall or court house
- amphitheaters - entertained the population

Wine-making (creating a lasting tradition in France, Italy, Spain...)
The 3 course meal (starter, main dish, desert

The Julian calendar (including current names of the months)

HISTORY OF OUR LADY OF THE RULE FROM PARISH PRIEST

2009-03-21T08:12:00.000-07:00

HISTORY OF OUR LADY OF THE RULE FROM PARISH PRIEST

The church of Our Lady of the Rule is in Opon town on the island of Mactan. The people first saw a picture of the Virgen de la Regla in 1735, when the first parish priest, Francisco Avalle, an Augustinian friar from Spain. He officially began his term in 1735. A baptismal book that can still be found in the parish archives bears his signature and notes that he was the “Prior y Ministro Del Convento de Nuestra Señora de Opon”. It was the Augustinian fathers who governed the parish since its founding until 1898, except for three short intervening years (from 1739 up to 1742) when the Jesuit fathers took over. From 1898 up to 1906, the parish was under the administration of a Filipino diocesan priest named Fr. Vicente Roa. In 1906 the administration was handed to the Redemptorist fathers who are credited for founding the present-day Saint Alphonsus Catholic School. The Redemptorist fathers stayed in the parish until 1929. Since 1929 up to the present, the parish has been under the administration of the Missionaries of the Sacred Heart (MSC). The first MSC who became a parish priest in Opon was Fr. Johannes Jansen, a Dutch father. Historical records show that the first parish to have been created by the Augustinians in mainland Cebu was the San Nicolas parish in 1584. From the early 1600’s up to the beginnings of the eighteenth century, roughly more than a hundred years, Opon was a visita of San Nicolas. As a visita, Opon was both civilly and ecclesiastically under the administration of San Nicolas. Together with Opon, the visitas of San Nicolas included Naghalin, Cotcot, Olango and Lilo-an. Opon was elevated to parish status only in the 1730. Father Avalle was a devotee, having lived for 10 years in the Monastery of Nuestra Señora de la Regla in Chipiona, Andalucia, Spain. St. Augustine himself venerated this image. When he died in 430, his monks continued the devotion to her. When the Vandals invaded Africa in 433, the monks fled to Spain, taking the image with them. For several centuries, the Virgen de la Regla was venerated under several names: Virgen Libica, Virgen del Sagrario, Estrella de los Mares and La Virgen Morena, or Morenita. Centuries passed and the image had been almost forgotten until, in 1330, the Virgin appeared to an Augustinian priest in the city of Leon, where King Ferdinand, after reconquering Spain, dedicated the Cathedral to Santa Maria de la Regla.. The Virgin, who was carrying the Child Jesus in her arms, told the priest to go to the Sea of Cadiz and look for a cave where the image had been hidden away. She told the priest to get the image and place it in her church. She said she would guide him with celestial light. The priest did what he was told, and went on a long journey. One day, he rested under a tree and fell into deep slumber. Then he heard a sweet voice saying this was the place. He prayed and asked the Virgin to show him the exact spot. A ball of fire from heaven fell and struck the tree, but did not burn it. With the help of the people in the area, the priest dug the earth, until he found a huge rock. When the people lifted it, they saw the opening of a cave, and when they opened it, they saw a wooden crate, in front of which a lamp was burning. A church was built on the spot where the statue was found. There, the statue of Our Lady of the Rule had been permanently enshrined. In 1735, the people of Opon chose Our Lady of the Rule to be their patroness. They had a big picture made and placed it on the altar. Miracles began to happen. Nov. 21 became Our Lady’s feastday.

Renaissance Artist.

2009-03-21T08:08:00.000-07:00

Humanism is a broad category of ethical philosophies that affirm the dignity and worth of all people, based on the ability to determine right and wrong by appealing to universal human qualities, particularly rationality, without resorting to the supernatural or alleged divine authority from religious texts.^[1][2] It is a component of a variety of more specific philosophical systems. Humanism can be considered as a process by which truth and morality is sought through human investigation and as such views on morals can change when new knowledge and information is discovered. In focusing on the capacity for self-determination, humanism rejects transcendental justifications, such as a dependence on belief without reason, the supernatural, or texts of allegedly divine origin. Humanists endorse universal morality based on the commonality of the human condition, suggesting that solutions to human social and cultural problems cannot be parochial.

Donatello (Donato di Niccolò di Betto Bardi; c. 1386 – December 13, 1466) was a famous early Renaissance Italian artist and sculptor from Florence. He is, in part, known for his work in basso rilievo, a form of shallow relief sculpture that, in Donatello's case, incorporated significant 15th-century developments in perspectival illusionism.

Filippo Brunelleschi (1377 – April 15, 1446) was one of the foremost architects and engineers of the Italian Renaissance. All of his principal works are in Florence, Italy. As explained by Antonio Manetti, who knew Brunelleschi and who wrote his biography, Brunelleschi "was granted such honors as to be buried in Santa Maria del Fiore, and with a marble bust, which they say was carved from life, and placed there in perpetual memory with such a splendid epitaph."^[1]

Lorenzo Ghiberti (born Lorenzo di Bartolo) (1378 – December 1, 1455) was an Italian artist of the early Renaissance best known for works in sculpture and metalworking.

Erasmo of Narni (1370 – January 16, 1443), better known as "Gattamelata", (The nickname means "The Honeyed Cat") was among the most famous of the condottieri or mercenaries in the Italian Renaissance. He was born in Narni, and served a number of Italian city-states: he began with Braccio da Montone, served Pope and Florence equally, and served Venice in 1434 in the battles with the Visconti of Milan.He was the subject of Donatello's equestrian bronze sculpture in the main square of Padua, the same city over which he became dictator in 1437.In Narni, the farmhouse in which Gattamelata was born bears a plaque reading "Narnia me genuit Gattamelata fui — (I was born in Narni, I was Gattamelata)."

Girolamo Savonarola (September 21, 1452 – May 23, 1498), was an Italian Dominican priest and leader of Florence from 1494 until his execution in 1498. He was known for his book burning, destruction of what he considered immoral art, and hostility to the Renaissance. He vehemently preached against the moral corruption of much of the clergy at the time, and his main opponent was Pope Alexander VI (Rodrigo Borgia).

Alessandro di Mariano di Vanni Filipepi, better known as Sandro Botticelli or Il Botticello ("The Little Barrel"; March 1, 1445 – May 17, 1510)^[1] was an Italian painter of the Florentine school during the Early Renaissance (Quattrocento). Less than a hundred years later, this movement, under the patronage of Lorenzo de' Medici, was characterized by Giorgio Vasari as a "golden age", a thought, suitably enough, he expressed at the head of his Vita of Botticelli. His posthumous reputation suffered until the late 19th century; since then his work has been seen to represent the linear grace of Early Renaissance painting, and The Birth of Venus and Primavera rank now among the most familiar masterpieces of Florentine art.

Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci ( pronunciation (help·info), April 15, 1452 – May 2, 1519) was an Italian polymath, being a scientist, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, painter, sculptor, architect, botanist, musician and writer. Leonardo has often been described as the archetype of the renaissance man, a man whose unquenchable curiosity was equaled only by his powers of invention.^[1] He is widely considered to be one of the greatest painters of all time and perhaps the most diversely talented person ever to have lived.^[2] Helen Gardner says "The scope and depth of his interests were without precedent...His mind and personality seem to us superhuman, the man himself mysterious and Leonardo da Vinci described sfumato as "without lines or borders, in the manner of smoke or beyond the focus plane".^[1]Leonardo is closely associated with the technique, and one of the best-known examples is his Mona Lisa. Critics and art historians have argued over whether or not the Mona Lisa is smiling. This debate is due to the use of sfumato around her mouth, making it a mystery as to whether the shadows are a result of a smile or if the smile is a result of the shadows. The painting is painted using tiny dots in several layers, around the eyes and mouth as many as 40 layers.emote"

Linear perspective is a mathematical system for creating the illusion of space and distance on a flat surface. The system originated in Florence, Italy in the early 1400s. The artist and architect Brunelleschi demonstrated its principles, but another architect and writer, Leon Battista Alberti was first to write down rules of linear perspective for artists to follow. Leonardo da Vinci probably learned Alberti's system while serving as an apprentice to the artist Verrocchio in Florence.

Chiaroscuro (Italian for light-dark) is a term in art for a contrast between light and dark. The term is usually applied to bold contrasts affecting a whole composition, but is also more technically used by artists and art historians for the use of effects representing contrasts of light, not necessarily strong, to achieve a sense of volume in modeling three-dimensional objects such as the human body.Further specialised uses of the term are "chiaroscuro woodcut", used for coloured woodcuts printed with different blocks, each using a different coloured ink, and "chiaroscuro drawing" used for drawings on coloured paper with drawing in a dark medium and white highlighting. The term is now also used in describing similar effects in the lighting of cinema and photography.

Sfumato is the Italian term for a painting technique which overlays translucent layers of colour to create perceptions of depth, volume and form. In particular, it refers to the blending of colours or tones so subtly that there is no perceptible transition.In Italian sfumato means "smoky" and is derived from the Italian word fumo meaning 'smoke'.

The Virgin of the Rocks (sometimes the Madonna of the Rocks) is the usual title used for both of two different paintings with almost identical compositions, which are at least largely by Leonardo da Vinci. They are in the Louvre, Paris, and the National Gallery, London.

Michael Angelo Buonarotti, painter, sculptor, architect, and poet, born at Caprese, in Tuscany, one of the greatest artists that ever lived; studied art as apprentice for three years under Domenico Ghirlandajo, and at seventeen his talents attracted the notice of Lorenzo de' Medici, who received him into his palace at Florence, and employed as well as encouraged him; on the death of his patron he left for Bologna, and afterwards, in 1496, went to Rome, whither his renown as a sculptor had gone before him, and there he executed his antiques “Bacchus” and “Cupid,” followed by his “Pieta,” or Virgin weeping over the dead Christ; from 1503 to 1513 he was engaged on the ceiling in the Sistine Chapel; in 1530 we find him at Florence dividing his time between work as an engineer in the defence of the city and his art as a sculptor; three years after this he was back in Rome, and by-and-by busy painting his great fresco in the Sistine Chapel, the “Last Judgment,” which occupied him eight years; in 1542 he was appointed architect of St. Peter's, and he planned and built the dome; sculpture was his great forte, but his genius was equal to any task imposed on him, and he has left poems to show what he might have done in the domain of letters as he has done in those of arts, with which his fame is more intimately associated (1474‒1564).

El Greco (1541 – April 7, 1614) was a painter, sculptor, and architect of the Spanish Renaissance. "El Greco" (The Greek) was a nickname,^[a][b] a reference to his Greek origin, and the artist normally signed his paintings with his full birth name in Greek letters, Δομήνικος Θεοτοκόπουλος (Doménikos Theotokópoulos).

Acropolis

2009-03-21T07:58:00.000-07:00

Acropolis

The Parthenon is a temple of the Greek goddess Athena, built in the 5th century BC on the Athenian Acropolis. It is the most important surviving building of Classical Greece, generally considered to be the culmination of the development of the Doric order. Its decorative sculptures are considered one of the high points of Greek art. The Parthenon is regarded as an enduring symbol of ancient Greece and of Athenian democracy, and one of the world's greatest cultural monuments.

Propylaea, Propylea or Propylaia is any monumental gateway based on the original Propylaea that serves as the entrance to the Acropolis in Athens. The word propylaea (propylaeum is the Latin version) is the union of the prefix pro (before or in front of) plus the plural of the Greek pylon or pylaion (gate), meaning literally that which is before the gates, but the word has come to mean simply gate building. The Brandenburg Gate of Berlin and the Propylaea in Munich are specifically copied from the central portion of the Propylaea.

The Erechtheum is an ancient Greek temple on the north side of the Acropolis of Athens in Greece, notable for a design that is both elegant and unique.

The Chalkotheke (Greek for "bronze store") was a structure on the Athenian Acropolis. Its name and function are only known from 4th century BC inscriptions. One decree orders the listing of all objects stored in the Chalkotheke and the erection of a stele sincribed with that list in front of the building.

The Brauroneion was the sanctuary of Artemis Brauronia on the Athenian Acropolis, located in the southwest corner of the Acropolis plateau, between the Chalkotheke and the Propylaia in Greece. It was originally dedicated during the reign of Peisistratos. Artemis Brauronia, protector of women in pregnancy and childbirth, had her main sanctuary at Brauron, a demos on the east coast of Attica.

The Odeon of Herodes Atticus is a stone theatre structure located on the south slope of the Acropolis of Athens. It was built in 161 AD by Herodes Atticus in memory of his wife, Aspasia Annia Regilla. It was originally a steep-sloped amphitheater with a three-story stone front wall and a wooden roof, and was used as a venue for music concerts with a capacity of 5,000.

The Theatre of Dionysus was a major open air theatre in ancient Greece, built at the foot of the Athenian Acropolis and forming part of the temenos of "Dionysus Eleuthereus" (or Eleutherios, for "Dionysus, the Liberator"). Dedicated to Dionysus, the god of plays and wine (among other things), the theatre could seat as many as 17,000 people, making it an ideal location for ancient Athens' biggest theatrical celebration, the Dionysia. It became the prototype for all theatres of ancient Greece.

Stoa of Eumenes between the Odeion of Herodes Atticus and the Theater of Dionysos is the Stoa of Eumenes, built by King Eumenes II of Pergamon (197-160 B.C.), who not only erected magnificent buildings in his own city (Great Altar of Pergamon) but also sought to do honor to Athens by the building of this stoa. His example was followed by his brother and successor Attalos II (160-139 B.C.), who built the Stoa of Attalos in the Agora, probably using the same architect.

The Athena Promachos was a colossal bronze statue of Athena sculpted by Pheidias, which stood between the Propylaea and the Parthenon on the Acropolis of Athens. Athena was the goddess of wisdom and warriors and the protectress of Athens. Pheidias also sculpted two other figures of Athena on the Acropolis, the huge gold and ivory ("chryselephantine") cult image of Athena Parthenos in the Parthenon and the Lemnian Athena. The designation Athena Promachos is not attested before a dedicatory inscription of the early fourth century CE: Pausanias for one, referred to it as "the great bronze Athena" on the Acropolis.

Maikling Kwento ng Kababalaghan

2009-03-21T07:56:00.000-07:00

Maikling Kwento ng Kababalaghan

naalala ko yung pinsan ko sa lucena, kuwento niya sa amin. One time daw naiwan lang siya mag-isa sa bahay nila, yung silong ng bahay nila ay dating bakante lang pinagawa namin yun nung balak ng mader dear ko na manirahan sa lucena... bale mataas lang kasi ang pagkayari doon sa bahay kaya ng magawa ang ibaba ng bahay eh mababa ang kisame, pag nasa 6 feet na ang tao nakayuko na siya... ganon kababa kaya maliwanag mong maririnig ang mga pag-uusap mula sa salas hanggang sa mga kuwarto nila sa itaas ng bahay nila.

Yun nga nasa taas ang pinsan ko nag-iisa, mga kapatid niya wala pa dahil nasa school at ang parents niya naman lumabas nga. Then may narinig siya nag-uusap sa baba, narinig daw niya si Tiya Baby (nanay niya) sabi sa sa tatay niya, magpahinga ka na muna jan sa sofa at maghahanda lang ako ng hapunan... yun ang narinig niya tapos biglang tumahimik... then bumaba daw siya pero nagulat siya kasi walang tao sa baba ng bahay nila at wala sa kusina ang nanay niya... wala din sa sofa si Tatay niya. Sabi niya kanino kayang boses yung narinig ko? kaboses ni inay.. sabi ni Allan... so pasok daw ulit siya sa kuwarto niya... wala pang 30 minutes... may nagbukas daw pinto sa baba then bumaba naman siya para tingnan kung sinong dumating.. ngayon narinig niya nanay niya sabi sa tatay niya, magpahinga ka na muna jan sa sofa at maghahanda lang ako ng hapunan... kinilabutan daw siya, kasi ganun na ganon daw yung eksenang narinig niya ang kaibhan lang daw eh nakita at narinig niya mismo sa harapan niya...

Maikling kuwento

2009-03-21T07:53:00.000-07:00

Ang maikling kuwento - binaybay ding maikling kwento - ay isang maigsing salaysay hinggil sa isang mahalagang pangyayaring kinasasangkutan ng isa o ilang tauhan at may iisang kakintalan o impresyon lamang. Isa itong masining na anyo ng panitikan. Tulad ng nobela at dula, isa rin itong paggagad ng realidad, kung ginagagad ang isang momento lamang o iyong isang madulang pangyayaring naganap sa buhay ng pangunahing tauhan. Si Edgar Allan Poe ang tinuturing na "Ama ng Maikling Kuwento."

Mga uri

May siyam na uri ng maikling kuwento:

Sa kwento ng tauhan inilalarawan ang mga pangyayaring pangkaugalian ng mga tauhang nagsisiganap upang mabigyan ng kabuuan ang pag-unawa sa kanila ng isang mambabasa.
Sa kwento ng katutubong kulay binibigyang-diin ang kapaligiran at mga pananamit ng mga tauhan, ang uri ng pamumuhay, at hanapbuhay ng mga tao sa nasabing pook.
Sa'kwentong bayan nilalahad an mga kwentong pinag-uusapan sa kasalukuyan ng buong bayan.
Sa kwento ng kababalaghan pinag-uusapan ang mga salaysaying hindi kapanipaniwala.
Naglalaman ang kwento ng katatakutan ng mga pangyayaring kasindak-sindak.
Sa kwento ng madulang pangyayari binibigyang diin ang kapanapanabik at mahahalagang pangyayari na nakapagpapaiba o nakapagbago sa tauhan.
Sa kwento ng sikolohiko ipinadarama sa mga mambabasa ang damdamin ng isang tao sa harap ng isang pangyayari at kalagayan. Ito ang uri ng maikling kwentong bihirang isulat sapagkat may kahirapan ang paglalarawan ng kaisipan.
Sa kwento ng pakikipagsapalaran, nasa balangkas ng pangyayari ang interes ng kwento.
Nagbibigay-aliw at nagpapasaya naman sa mambabasa ang kwento ng katatawanan.

Tema [baguhin]

Mayroon mga pagkakaiba ang tema sa mensahe ng isang maikling kuwento. Ang tema ang pangkalahatang kaisipang nais palutangin ng may-akda sa isang maikling kwento. At ang kaisipang ito ang binibigyan ng layang maikintal sa isipang ng mga mambabasa. Maaaring maging mga sumusuno ang tema: palagay sa mga naganap na pangyayari sa lipunan, obserbasyon ng may-akda tungkol sa pag-uugali ng tao, paniniwala sa isang katotohanan o pilosopiyang tinatanggap ng tao sa buong daigdig sa lahat ng panahon, o ang dahilan ng pagkakasulat ng may-akda. Ang mensahe naman ang tuwirang pangangaral o pagsesermon ng manunulat sa mambabasa.

Aspekto ng Pandiwa

2009-03-21T07:50:00.000-07:00

Ang aspekto ng pandiwa (Eng. verb tense) ay tumutukoy sa bahagi ng panahon kung kailan naganap ang isang kilos. Sa mas madaling salita, ito ay tumutukoy kung kailan ginawa ang kilos -- ginawa na, ginagawa pa, o gagawain pa.

Sa dating barirala, mayroon lamang tatlong aspekto ng pandiwa. Sa makabago, apat na. Ito ay ang:

1. Perpektibo / Pangnagdaan - ang kilos ay tapos nang ginawa
(hal. kumanta, nagsayaw)

2. Perpektibong Katatapos - ang kilos ay bago lang natapos
(hal. kaaalis, kahahanap)

3. Imperpektibo / Pangkasalukuyan - ang kilos ay tuluyang ginagawa pa
(hal. kumakain, sinasabihan)

4. Kontemplatibo / Panghinaharap - ang kilos ay gagawin pa sa hinaharap
(hal. magsusulat, liligawan)

Indian Music

2009-03-21T07:49:00.002-07:00

The music of India is one of the oldest unbroken musical traditions in the world. It is said that the origins of this system go back to the Vedas (ancient scripts of the Hindus). Many different legends have grown up concerning the origins and development of Indian classical music. Such legends go a long way in showing the importance that music has in defining Indian culture.
However the advent of modern historical and cultural research has also given us a good perspective on the field. This has shown that Indian music has developed within a very complex interaction between different peoples of different races and cultures. It appears that the ethnic diversity of present day India has been there from the earliest of times.
The basis for Indian music is "sangeet". Sangeet is a combination of three artforms: vocal music, instrumental music and dance. Although these three artforms were originally derived from the single field of stagecraft. Today these three forms have differentiated into complex and highly refined individual artforms.
The present system of Indian music is based upon two important pillars: rag and tal. Rag is the melodic form while tal is the rhythmic.
Rag may be roughly equated with the Western term mode or scale. There is a system of seven notes which are arranged in a means not unlike Western scales. However when we look closely we see that it is quite different what we are familiar with.
The tal (rhythmic forms) are also very complex. Many common rhythmic patterns exist. They revolve around repeating patterns of beats.
The interpretation of the rag and the tal is not the same all over India. Today there are two major traditions of classical music. There is the north Indian and the south Indian tradition. The North Indian tradition is known as Hindustani sangeet and the south Indian is called Carnatic sangeet. Both systems are fundamentally similar but differ in nomenclature and performance practice.
Many musical instruments are peculiar to India. The most famous are the sitar and tabla. However there are many more that the average person may not be familiar with.
All of this makes up the complex and exciting field of Indian classical music. Its understanding easily consumes an entire lifetime.

INDIAN INSTRUMENT - There are many musical instruments in India. Some instruments are used primarily in north Indian music (Hindustani sangeet), some are used in the south Indian music (Carnatic sangeet), while others are found in folk music. Instrumental music is usually similar to vocal music but sometimes there are distinctive instrumental styles.There is a traditional system for the classification of instruments. This system is based upon; non-membranous percussion (ghan), membranous percussion (avanaddh), wind blown (sushir), plucked string (tat), bowed string (vitat). Here are the classes and representative instruments.
NON-MEMBRANOUS PERCUSSIVE (Ghan)
Examples: Chimpta Ghatam Ghungharu
BLOWN AIR (Sushir)
Examples: Bansuri Bombashi Harmonium
PLUCKED STRINGED INSTRUMENTS (Tat)
Examples: Bulbul Tarang Dotar #1 Dotar #2 (Dotora) Ektar
BOWED-STRINGED INSTRUMENTS (Vitat)
Examples: Chikara Dilruba Esraj
MEMBRANOUS PERCUSSIVE (Avanaddh)
Examples: Chenda Daf (Duf, Daphu, Daffali) Damaru
NON-MEMBRANOUS PERCUSSIVE (Ghan)- This class is based upon percussive instruments which do not have membranes, specifically those which have solid resonators
BLOWN AIR (Sushir)- This class of instrument is characterized by the use of air to excite the various resonators.
PLUCKED STRINGED INSTRUMENTS (Tat)-This class of instruments is characterized by plucked strings. In ancient times virtually all instruments of this class were referred to as vina.
BOWED-STRINGED INSTRUMENTS (Vitat)-This is a class of stringed instruments which are bowed.
MEMBRANOUS PERCUSSIVE (Avanaddh)-This is a class of instruments which have struck membranes. These typically comprise the drums.

BEOWULF

2009-03-21T07:49:00.001-07:00

BEOWULF

Beowulf begins with a history of the great Danish King Scyld (whose funeral is described in the Prologue). King Hrothgar, Scyld's great-grandson, is well loved by his people and successful in war. He builds a lavish hall, called Heorot, to house his vast army, and when the hall is finished, the Danish warriors gather under its roof to celebrate.
Grendel, a monster who lives at the bottom of a nearby mere, is provoked by the singing and celebrating of Hrothgar's followers. He appears at the hall late one night and kills thirty of the warriors in their sleep. For the next twelve years, the fear of Grendel's fury casts a shadow over the lives of the Danes. Hrothgar and his advisors can think of nothing to calm the monster's anger.
Beowulf, prince of the Geats, hears about Hrothgar's troubles, gathers fourteen of the bravest Geat warriors, and sets sail from his home in southern Sweden. The Geats are greeted by the members of Hrothgar's court, and Beowulf boasts to the king of his previous successes as a warrior, particularly his success in fighting sea monsters. Hrothgar welcomes the arrival of the Geats, hoping that Beowulf will live up to his reputation. During the banquet that follows Beowulf's arrival, Unferth, a Danish thane, voices doubt about Beowulf's past accomplishments, and Beowulf, in return, accuses Unferth of killing his brothers. Before the night ends, Hrothgar promises Beowulf great treasures if he meets with success against the monster.
Grendel appears on the night of the Geats' arrival at Heorot. Beowulf, true to his word, wrestles the monster barehanded.He tears off the monster's arm at the shoulder, but Grendel escapes, only to die soon afterward at the bottom of his snake-infested mere. The Danish warriors, who have fled the hall in fear, return singing songs in praise of Beowulf's triumph. Hrothgar rewards Beowulf with a great store of treasures. After another banquet, the warriors of both the Geats and the Danes retire for the night.
Unknown to the warriors, however, Grendel's mother is plotting revenge. She arrives at the hall when all the warriors are sleeping and carries off Aeschere, Hrothgar's chief advisor along with her son's claw. Beowulf offers to dive to the bottom of the lake, find the monster and destroy her. He and his men follow the monster's tracks to the cliff overlooking the lake where Grendel's mother lives. They see Aeschere's bloody head sitting on the cliff. While preparing for battle, Beowulf asks Hrothgar to protect his warriors, and to send his treasures to his uncle, King Hygelac, if he doesn't return safely.
Before Beowulf goes into the sea, Unferth offers him his sword, Hrunting. During the ensuing battle Grendel's mother carries Beowulf to her underwater home. After a terrible fight, Beowulf kills the monster with a magical sword, probably put there by the Al-Weilder, that he finds on the wall of her home. He also finds Grendel's dead body, cuts off the head, and returns to land, where the Geat and Danish warriors are waiting expectantly. Beowulf has now abolished the race of evil monsters.
The warriors return to Hrothgar's court, where the Danes and Geats prepare a feast in celebration of the death of the monsters. Beowulf bids farewell to Hrothgar and tells the old king that if the Danes ever again need help he will gladly come to their assistance. Hrothgar presents Beowulf with more treasures, and they embrace, emotionally, like father and son.
The Geats sail home. After recounting the story of his battles with Grendel and Grendel's mother, Beowulf tells King Hygelac about the feud between Denmark and their enemies, the Heatho-bards. He describes the proposed peace settlement, in which Hrothgar will give his daughter Freawaru to Ingeld, king of the Heatho-bards, but predicts that the peace will not last long. Hygelac rewards Beowulf for his bravery with land, swords, and houses.
The meeting between Hygelac and Beowulf marks the end of the first part of the poem. In the next part, Hygelac is dead, and Beowulf has been king of the Geats for fifty years. A thief steals a jeweled cup from a sleeping dragon who avenges his loss by flying through the night burning down houses, including Beowulf's own hall and throne. Beowulf goes to the cave where the dragon lives, vowing to destroy it single-handedly. He's an old man now, and he is not as strong as he was when he fought Grendel. During the battle Beowulf breaks his sword against the dragon's side; the dragon, enraged, engulfs Beowulf in flames and wounds him in the neck. All of Beowulf's followers flee except Wiglaf, who rushes through the flames to assist the aging warrior. Wiglaf stabs the dragon with his sword, and Beowulf, in a final act of courage, cuts the dragon in half with his knife.
Yet the damage is done. Beowulf realizes that he's dying, that he has fought his last battle. He asks Wiglaf to bring him the dragon's storehouse of treasures; seeing the jewels and gold will make him feel that the effort has been worthwhile. He instructs Wiglaf to build a tomb to be known as "Beowulf's tower" on the edge of the sea. After Beowulf dies, Wiglaf admonishes the troops who deserted their leader when he was fighting against the dragon. He tells them that they have been untrue to the standards of bravery, courage, and loyalty that Beowulf has taught.
Wiglaf sends a messenger to a nearby camp of Geat soldiers with instructions to report the outcome of the battle. Wiglaf supervises the building of the funeral pyre. In keeping with Beowulf's instructions, the dragon's treasure is buried alongside Beowulf's ashes in the tomb. The poem ends as it began -- with the funeral of a great warrior.

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Italian Renaissance

The Italian Renaissance began the opening phase of the Renaissance, a period of great cultural change and achievement in Europe that spanned the period from the end of the 13th century to about 1600, marking the transition between Medieval and Early Modern Europe. The term renaissance is in essence a modern one that came into currency in the nineteenth century, in the work of historians such as Jacob Burckhardt. Although the origins of a movement that was confined largely to the literate culture of intellectual endeavor and patronage can be traced to the earlier part of the 14th century, many aspects of Italian culture and society remained largely Medieval; the Renaissance did not come into full swing until the end of the century. The word renaissance (Rinascimento in Italian) means “rebirth”, and the era is best known for the renewed interest in the culture of classical antiquity after the period that Renaissance humanists labelled the Dark Ages. These changes, while significant, were concentrated in the elite, and for the vast majority of the population life was little changed from the Middle Ages.

The European Renaissance began in Tuscany, and centered in the cities of Florence and Siena. It later had a great impact in Venice, where the remains of ancient Greek culture were brought together, providing humanist scholars with new texts. The Renaissance later had a significant effect on Rome, which was ornamented with some structures in the new all'antico mode, then was largely rebuilt by sixteenth-century popes. The Italian Renaissance peaked in the late 15th century as foreign invasions plunged the region into the turmoil of the Italian Wars. However, the ideas and ideals of the Renaissance spread into the rest of Europe, setting off the Northern Renaissance, and the English Renaissance.

The Italian Renaissance is best known for its cultural achievements. Italian Renaissance literature includes such figures as the humanists Petrarch (best known for the sonnets of The Canzoniere), Boccaccio (best known for the tales of The Decameron) and other renaissance humanists such as Poliziano, Marsilio Ficino, Lorenzo Valla, Aldo Manuzio, Poggio Bracciolini, the renaissance epic authors Castiglione (The Book of the Courtier), Ludovico Ariosto (Orlando Furioso) and Torquato Tasso (Jerusalem Delivered), and prose authors such as Machiavelli (The Prince). Italian Renaissance painting exercised a dominant influence on Western painting for centuries afterwards, with artists such as Michelangelo, Raphael, Botticelli, Titian, and Leonardo da Vinci, and the same is true for architecture, with Andrea Palladio and works such as Florence Cathedral and St. Peter's Basilica in Rome: see Renaissance architecture. At the same time, some present-day historians also see the era as one of economic regression and of little progress in science, which made its great leaps forward among Protestant culture in the seventeenth century.

Northern Italy in the Late Middle Ages

By the end of the Middle Ages, central and southern Italy, the heartland of the Roman Empire, was poorer than the north. Rome was a city dominated by ancient ruins, and the Papal States were a loosely administered region with little law and order, due to the pope having relocated to Avignon under pressure from King Philip the Fair of France. In the south, Naples, Sicily and Sardinia had for some time been under foreign domination, by the Arabs and then the Normans. Sicily had prospered for several centuries during the Emirate of Sicily and the early Kingdom of Sicily, but had declined by the end of the Middle Ages.

The north eventually became far more prosperous, with the states of northern Italy among the wealthiest in Europe. The Crusades had built lasting trade links to the Levant, and the Fourth Crusade had done much to destroy the Byzantine Empire as a commercial rival to the Venetians and Genoese. The main trade routes from the east passed through the Byzantine Empire or the Arab lands and onwards to the ports of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice. Luxury goods bought in the Levant, such as spices, dyes, and silks were imported to Italy and then resold throughout Europe. Moreover, the inland city-states profited from the rich agricultural land of the Po valley. From France, Germany, and the Low Countries, through the medium of the Champagne fairs, land and river trade routes brought goods such as wool, wheat, and precious metals into the region. The extensive trade that stretched from Egypt to the Baltic generated substantial surpluses that allowed significant investment in mining and agriculture. Thus, while northern Italy was not richer in resources than many other parts of Europe, the level of development, stimulated by trade, allowed it to prosper. Florence became one of the wealthiest cities of Northern Italy, due mainly to its woolen textile production, under the supervision of its dominant trade guild, the Arte della Lana. Wool was imported from Northern Europe (and in the sixteenth century from Spain) and dyes from the east were used to make high quality textiles.

The Italian trade routes that covered the Mediterranean and beyond were also major conduits of culture and knowledge. In medieval times works that embodied the classical learning of the Greeks had trickled into Western Europe, through Arab translations and treatises, from Toledo and from Palermo, especially in the so-called Renaissance of the 12th century. After the Spanish Reconquista of the fifteenth century and the resulting translations of Arabic-language works by the Arabists of the School of Salamanca, the scientific, philosophical and mathematical thinking of the Arabs became accessible to Northern Italy. After the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, a flood of refugee Greek scholars was important in sparking the new linguistic studies of the Renaissance, in revived academies in Florence and Venice. Humanist scholars searched monastic libraries for ancient manuscripts and recovered Tacitus and other Latin authors; with the rediscovery of Vitruvius the architectural principles of Antiquity could be observed once more, and Renaissance artists were encouraged, in the atmosphere of humanist optimism, to excel the achievements of the Ancients, like Apelles, of whom they read.

Thirteenth-century

In the thirteenth century, much of Europe experienced strong economic growth. The trade routes of the Italian states linked with those of established Mediterranean ports and eventually the Hanseatic League of the Baltic and northern regions of Europe to create a network economy in Europe for the first time since the fourth century. The city-states of Italy expanded greatly during this period and grew in power to become de facto fully independent of the Holy Roman Empire; apart from the Kingdom of Naples, outside powers kept their armies out of Italy. During this period, the modern commercial infrastructure developed, with double-entry book-keeping, joint stock companies, an international banking system, a systematized foreign exchange market, insurance, and government debt. Florence became the centre of this financial industry and the gold florin became the main currency of international trade.

The new mercantile governing class, who gained their position through financial skill, adapted to their purposes the feudal aristocratic model that had dominated Europe in the Middle Ages. A feature of the High Middle Ages in Northern Italy was the rise of the urban communes which had broken from the control by bishops and local counts. In much of the region, the landed nobility was poorer than the urban patriarchs in the High Medieval money economy whose inflationary rise left land-holding aristocrats impoverished. The increase in trade during the early Renaissance enhanced these characteristics. The decline of feudalism and the rise of cities influenced each other; for example, the demand for luxury goods led to an increase in trade, which led to greater numbers of tradesmen becoming wealthy, who, in turn, demanded more luxury goods. This change also gave the merchants almost complete control of the governments of the Italian city-states, again enhancing trade. One of the most important effects of this political control was security. Those that grew extremely wealthy in a feudal state ran constant risk of running afoul of the monarchy and having their lands confiscated, as famously occurred to Jacques Coeur in France. The northern states also kept many medieval laws that severely hampered commerce, such as those against usury, and prohibitions on trading with non-Christians. In the city-states of Italy, these laws were repealed or rewritten.

Fourteenth-century collapse

The fourteenth century saw a series of catastrophes that caused the European economy to go into recession. The Medieval Warm Period was ending as the transition to the Little Ice Age began. This change in climate saw agricultural output decline significantly, leading to repeated famines, exacerbated by the rapid population growth of the earlier era. The Hundred Years' War between England and France disrupted trade throughout northwest Europe, most notably when, in 1345, King Edward III of England repudiated his debts, contributing to the collapse of the two largest Florentine banks, those of the Bardi and Peruzzi. In the east, war was also disrupting trade routes, as the Ottoman Empire began to expand throughout the region. Most devastating, though, was the Black Death that decimated the populations of the densely populated cities of Northern Italy and returned at intervals thereafter. Florence, for instance, which had a pre-plague population of 45,000 decreased over the next 47 years by 25–50%. Widespread disorder followed, including a revolt of Florentine textile workers, the ciompi, in 1378.

It was during this period of instability that the first Renaissance figures, such as Dante and Petrarch lived, and the first stirrings of Renaissance art were to be seen in the opening half of the fourteenth century, notably in the realism of Giotto. Paradoxically, some of these disasters would help establish the Renaissance. The Black Death wiped out a third of Europe's population, producing a labour shortage, so that the reduced population was much wealthier, better fed, and, significantly, had more surplus money to spend on luxury goods like art and architecture. As incidences of the plague began to decline in the early fifteenth century, Europe's devastated population once again began to grow. This new demand for products and services, and the reduced number of people able to provide them, put the lower classes in a more favourable position. Furthermore, this demand also helped create a growing class of bankers, merchants, and skilled artisans. The horrors of the Black Death and the seeming inability of the Church to provide relief would contribute to a decline of church influence, another significant contributing factor to the Renaissance. Additionally, the collapse of the Bardi and Peruzzi banks would open the way for the Medici to rise to prominence in Florence. Robert Sabatino Lopez argues that the economic collapse was a crucial cause of the Renaissance.[6] According to this view, in a more prosperous era, businessmen would have quickly reinvested their earnings in order to make more money in a climate favourable to investment. However, in the leaner years of the fourteenth century, the wealthy found few promising investment opportunities for their earnings and instead chose to spend more on culture and art.

Another popular explanation for the Italian Renaissance is the thesis, first advanced by historian Hans Baron, that states that the primary impetus of the early Renaissance was the long-running series of wars between Florence and Milan. By the late fourteenth century, Milan had become a centralized monarchy under the control of the Visconti family. Giangaleazzo Visconti, who ruled the city from 1378 to 1402, was renowned both for his cruelty and for his abilities, and set about building an empire in Northern Italy. He launched a long series of wars, with Milan steadily conquering neighbouring states and defeating the various coalitions led by Florence that sought in vain to halt the advance. This culminated in the 1402 siege of Florence, when it looked as though the city was doomed to fall, before Giangaleazzo suddenly died and his empire collapsed.

Baron's thesis suggests that during these long wars, the leading figures of Florence rallied the people by presenting the war as one between the free republic and the despotic monarchy, between the ideals of the Greek and Roman Republics and those of the Roman Empire and Medieval kingdoms. For Baron, the most important figure in crafting this ideology was Leonardo Bruni. This time of crisis in Florence was the period when most of the major early Renaissance figures were coming of age, such as Ghiberti, Donatello, Masolino, and Brunelleschi, and that they were inculcated with this republican ideology. These and other figures later went on to advocate republican ideas that were to have an enormous impact on the Renaissance.

International relations 14th Century

Northern Italy and upper Central Italy were divided into a number of warring city-states, the most powerful being Milan, Florence, Pisa, Siena, Genoa, Ferrara, Mantua,Verona and Venice. High Medieval Northern Italy was further divided by the long running battle for supremacy between the forces of the Papacy and of the Holy Roman Empire: each city aligned itself with one faction or the other, yet was divided internally between the two warring parties, Guelfs and Ghibellines. Warfare between the states was common, invasion from outside Italy confined to intermittent sorties of Holy Roman Emperors. Renaissance politics developed from this background. Since the thirteenth century, as armies became primarily composed of mercenaries, prosperous city-states could field considerable forces, despite their low populations. In the course of the fifteenth century, the most powerful city-states annexed their smaller neighbors. Florence took Pisa in 1406, Venice captured Padua and Verona, while the Duchy of Milan annexed a number of nearby areas including Pavia and Parma.

The first part of the Renaissance saw almost constant warfare on land and sea as the city-states vied for preeminence. On land, these wars were primarily fought by armies of mercenaries known as condottieri, bands of soldiers drawn from around Europe, but especially Germany and Switzerland, led largely by Italian captains. The mercenaries were not willing to risk their lives unduly, and war became one largely of sieges and maneuvering, occasioning few pitched battles. It was also in the interest of mercenaries on both sides to prolong any conflict, to continue their employment. Mercenaries were also a constant threat to their employers; if not paid, they often turned on their patron. If it became obvious that a state was entirely dependent on mercenaries, the temptation was great for the mercenaries to take over the running of it themselves—this occurred on a number of occasions.

At sea, Italian city-states sent many fleets out to do battle. The main contenders were Pisa, Genoa, and Venice, but after a long conflict the Genoese succeeded in reducing Pisa. Venice proved to be a more powerful adversary, and with the decline of Genoese power during the fifteenth century Venice became pre-eminent on the seas. In response to threats from the landward side, from the early fifteenth century Venice developed an increased interest in controlling the terrafirma as the Venetian Renaissance opened.

On land, decades of fighting saw Florence, Milan and Venice emerge as the dominant players, and these two powers finally set aside their differences and agreed to the Peace of Lodi in 1454, which saw relative calm brought to the region for the first time in centuries. This peace would hold for the next forty years, and Venice's unquestioned hegemony over the sea also led to unprecedented peace for much of the rest of the fifteenth century. In the beginning of the fifteenth century, adventurer and traders such as Niccolò Da Conti (1395–1469) traveled as far as Southeast Asia and back, bringing fresh knowledge on the state of the world, presaging further European voyages of exploration in the years to come

Florence under the Medici

Until the late fourteenth century, Florence's leading family were the House of Albizzi. Their main challengers were the Medicis, first under Giovanni de' Medici, later under his son Cosimo di Giovanni de' Medici. The Medici controlled the Medici bank—then Europe's largest bank—and an array of other enterprises in Florence and elsewhere. In 1433, the Albizzi managed to have Cosimo exiled. The next year, however, saw a pro-Medici Signoria elected and Cosimo returned. The Medici became the town's leading family, a position they would hold for the next three centuries. Florence remained a republic until 1537, traditionally marking the end of the High Renaissance in Florence, but the instruments of republican government were firmly under the control of the Medici and their allies, save during the intervals after 1494 and 1527. Cosimo and Lorenzo only rarely held official posts, but were the unquestioned leaders.

Cosimo de' Medici was highly popular among the citizenry, mainly for bringing an era of stability and prosperity to the town. One of his most important accomplishments was negotiating the Peace of Lodi with Francesco Sforza ending the decades of war with Milan and bringing stability to much of Northern Italy. Cosimo was also an important patron of the arts, directly and indirectly, by the influential example he set.

Cosimo was succeeded by his sickly son Piero de' Medici, who died after five years in charge of the city. In 1469 the reins of power passed to Cosimo's twenty-one-year-old grandson Lorenzo, who would become known as "Lorenzo the Magnificent." Lorenzo was the first of the family to be educated from an early age in the humanist tradition and is best known as one of the Renaissance's most important patrons of the arts. Under Lorenzo, the Medici rule was formalized with the creation of a new Council of Seventy, which Lorenzo headed. The republican institutions continued, but they lost all power. Lorenzo was less successful than his illustrious forebears in business, and the Medici commercial empire was slowly eroded. Lorenzo continued the alliance with Milan, but relations with the papacy soured, and in 1478, Papal agents allied with the Pazzi family in an attempt to assassinate Lorenzo. Although the plot failed, Lorenzo's young brother, Giuliano, was killed, and the failed assassination led to a war with the Papacy and was used as justification to further centralize power in Lorenzo's hands.

Spread of the Renaissance

Renaissance ideals first spread from Florence to the neighbouring states of Tuscany such as Siena and Lucca. The Tuscan culture soon became the model for all the states of Northern Italy, and the Tuscan variety of Italian came to predominate throughout the region, especially in literature. In 1447 Francesco Sforza came to power in Milan and rapidly transformed that still medieval city into a major centre of art and learning that drew Leone Battista Alberti. Venice, one of the wealthiest cities due to its control of the Mediterranean Sea, also became a centre for Renaissance culture, especially architecture. Smaller courts brought Renaissance patronage to lesser cities, which developed their characteristic arts: Ferrara, Mantua under the Gonzaga, Urbino under Federico da Montefeltro. In Naples, the Renaissance was ushered in under the patronage of Alfonso I who conquered Naples in 1443 and encouraged artists like Francesco Laurana and Antonello da Messina and writers like the poet Jacopo Sannazaro and the humanist scholar Angelo Poliziano.

In 1417 the Papacy returned to Rome, but that once imperial city remained poor and largely in ruins through the first years of the Renaissance. The great transformation began under Pope Nicholas V, who became pontiff in 1447. He launched a dramatic rebuilding effort that would eventually see much of the city renewed. The humanist scholar Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini became pope as Pius II in 1458. As the papacy fell under the control of the wealthy families from the north, such as the Medici and the Borgias the spirit of Renaissance art and philosophy came to dominate the Vatican. Pope Sixtus IV continued Nicholas' work, most famously ordering the construction of the Sistine Chapel. The popes also became increasingly secular rulers as the Papal States were forged into a centralized power by a series of "warrior popes".

The nature of the Renaissance also changed in the late fifteenth century. The Renaissance ideal was fully adopted by the ruling classes and the aristocracy. In the early Renaissance artists were seen as craftsmen with little prestige or recognition. By the later Renaissance the top figures wielded great influence and could charge great fees. A flourishing trade in Renaissance art developed. While in the early Renaissance many of the leading artists were of lower- or middle-class origins, increasingly they became aristocrats.

End of the Italian Renaissance

The end of the Renaissance is as imprecisely marked as its starting point. For many, the rise to power in Florence of the austere monk Girolamo Savonarola in 1494-1498 marks the end of the city's flourishing; for others, the triumphant return of the Medici marks the beginning of the late phase in the arts called Mannerism. Savonarola rode to power on a widespread backlash over the secularism and indulgence of the Renaissance – his brief rule saw many works of art destroyed in the "Bonfire of the Vanities" in the centre of Florence. With the Medici returned to power, now as Grand Dukes of Tuscany, the counter movement in the church continued. In 1542 the Sacred Congregation of the Inquisition was formed and a few years later the Index Librorum Prohibitorum banned a wide array of Renaissance works of literature.

Just as important was the end of stability with a series of foreign invasions of Italy known as the Italian Wars that would continue for several decades. These began with the 1494 invasion by France that wreaked widespread devastation on Northern Italy and ended the independence of many of the city-states. Most damaging was the May 6, 1527, Spanish and German troops' sacking Rome that for two decades all but ended the role of the Papacy as the largest patron of Renaissance art and architecture.

While the Italian Renaissance was fading, the Northern Renaissance adopted many of its ideals and transformed its styles. A number of Italy's greatest artists chose to emigrate. The most notable example was Leonardo da Vinci who left for France in 1516, but teams of lesser artists invited to transform the Château de Fontainebleau created the school of Fontainebleau that infused the style of the Italian Renaissance in France. From Fontainebleau, the new styles, transformed by Mannerism, brought the Renaissance to Antwerp and thence throughout Northern Europe.

This spread north was also representative of a larger trend. No longer was the Mediterranean Europe's most important trade route. In 1498, Vasco da Gama reached India, and from that date the primary route of goods from the Orient was through the Atlantic ports of Lisbon, Seville, Nantes, Bristol, and London. These areas quickly surpassed Italy in wealth and power.

Italian Renaissance literature

The thirteenth-century Italian literary revolution helped set the stage for the Renaissance. Prior to the Renaissance, the Italian language was not the literary language in Italy. It was only in the 13th century that Italian authors began writing in their native language rather than Latin, French, or Provençal. The 1250s saw a major change in Italian poetry as the Dolce Stil Novo (Sweet New Style, which emphasized Platonic rather than courtly love) came into its own, pioneered by poets like Guittone d'Arezzo and Guido Guinizelli. Especially in poetry, major changes in Italian literature had been taking place decades before the Renaissance truly began.

With the printing of books initiated in Venice by Aldus Manutius, an increasing number of works began to be published in the Italian language in addition to the flood of Latin and Greek texts that constituted the mainstream of the Italian Renaissance. The source for these works expanded beyond works of theology and towards the pre-Christian eras of Imperial Rome and Ancient Greece. This is not to say that no religious works were published in this period: Dante Alighieri's The Divine Comedy reflects a distinctly medieval world view. Christianity remained a major influence for artists and authors, with the classics coming into their own as a second primary influence.

In the early Italian Renaissance, much of the focus was on translating and studying classic works from Latin and Greek. Renaissance authors were not content to rest on the laurels of ancient authors, however. Many authors attempted to integrate the methods and styles of the ancient greats into their own works. Among the most emulated Romans are Cicero, Horace, Sallust, and Virgil. Among the Greeks, Aristotle, Homer, and Plato were now being read in the original for the first time since the fourth century, though Greek compositions were few.

The literature and poetry of the Renaissance was largely influenced by the developing science and philosophy. The humanist Francesco Petrarch, a key figure in the renewed sense of scholarship, was also an accomplished poet, publishing several important works of poetry. He wrote poetry in Latin, notably the Punic War epic Africa, but is today remembered for his works in the Italian vernacular, especially the Canzoniere, a collection of love sonnets dedicated to his unrequited love Laura. He was the foremost writer of sonnets in Italian, and translations of his work into English by Thomas Wyatt established the sonnet form in that country, where it was employed by William Shakespeare and countless other poets.

Petrarch's disciple, Giovanni Boccaccio, became a major author in his own right. His major work was the Decameron, a collection of 100 stories told by ten storytellers who have fled to the outskirts of Florence to escape the black plague over ten nights. The Decameron in particular and Boccaccio's work in general were a major source of inspiration and plots for many English authors in the Renaissance, including Geoffrey Chaucer and William Shakespeare.

Aside from Christianity, classical antiquity, and scholarship, a fourth influence on Renaissance literature was politics. The political philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli's most famous works are Discourses on Livy, Florentine Histories and finally The Prince, which has become so well-known in Western society that the term "Machiavellian" has come to refer to the realpolitik advocated by the book. However, what is ordinarily called "Machiavellianism" is a simplified textbook view of this single work rather than an accurate term for his philosophy. Further, it is not at all clear that Machiavelli himself was the apologist for immorality as whom he is often portrayed: the basic problem is the apparent contradiction between the monarchism of the Prince and the republicanism of the Discourses. Regardless, along with many other Renaissance works, The Prince remains a relevant and influential work of literature today.

Renaissance humanism

One role of Petrarch is as the founder of a new method of scholarship, Renaissance Humanism. Humanism was an optimistic philosophy that saw man as a rational and sentient being, with the ability to decide and think for himself. This was an implicit rejection of the Roman Catholic Church's vision of souls as the only absolute reality, which was then seen as mystical and imaginary. Humanism saw man as inherently good by nature, which was in tension with the Christian view of man as the original sinner needing redemption. It provoked fresh insight into the nature of reality, questioning beyond God and spirituality, and provided for knowledge about history beyond Christian history.

Petrarch encouraged the study of the Latin classics and carried his copy of Homer about, at a loss to find someone to teach him to read Greek. An essential step in the humanist education being propounded by scholars like Pico della Mirandola was the hunting down of lost or forgotten manuscripts that were known only by reputation. These endeavors were greatly aided by the wealth of Italian patricians, merchant-princes and despots, who would spend substantial sums building libraries. Discovering the past had become fashionable and it was a passionate affair pervading the upper reaches of society. I go, said Cyriac of Ancona, I go to awake the dead. As the Greek works were acquired, manuscripts found, libraries and museums formed, the age of the printing press was dawning. The works of Antiquity were translated from Greek and Latin into the contemporary modern languages throughout Europe, finding a receptive middle-class audience, which might be, like Shakespeare, "with little Latin and less Greek".

While concern for philosophy, art and literature all increased greatly in the Renaissance the period is usually seen as one of scientific backwardness. The reverence for classical sources further enshrined the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic views of the universe. Humanism stressed that nature came to be viewed as an animate spiritual creation that was not governed by laws or mathematics. At the same time philosophy lost much of its rigour as the rules of logic and deduction were seen as secondary to intuition and emotion.

Early Renaissance painting

In painting, the false dawn of Giotto's Trecento realism, his fully three-dimensional figures occupying a rational space, and his humanist interest in expressing the individual personality rather than the iconic images, was followed by a retreat into conservative late Gothic conventions. The Italian Renaissance in painting began anew, in Florence and Tuscany, with the frescos of Masaccio, then the panel paintings and frescos of Piero della Francesca and Paolo Uccello which began to enhance the realism of their work by using new techniques in perspective, thus representing three dimensions in two-dimensional art more authentically. Piero della Francesca wrote treatises on scientific perspective. The creation of credible space allowed artists to also focus on the accurate representation of the human body and on naturalistic landscapes. Masaccio's figures have a plasticity unknown up to that point in time. Compared to the flatness of Gothic painting, his pictures were revolutionary. At the turn of the 16th century, especially in Northern Italy, artists also began to use new techniques in the manipulation of light and darkness, such as the tone contrast evident in many of Titian's portraits and the development of sfumato and chiaroscuro by Leonardo da Vinci and Giorgione. The period also saw the first secular (non- religious) themes. There has been much debate as to the degree of secularism in the Renaissance, which had been emphasized by early 20th-century writers like Jacob Burckhardt, based on, among other things, the presence of a relatively small number of mythological paintings. Those of Botticelli, notably the The Birth of Venus and Primavera, are now among the best known, although he was deeply religious (becoming a follower of Savonarola) and the great majority of his output was of traditional religious paintings or portraits.

In sculpture, Donatello's (1386–1466) study of classical sculpture lead to his development of classicizing positions (such as the contrapposto pose) and subject matter (like the unsupported nude – his second sculpture of David was the first free-standing bronze nude created in Europe since the Roman Empire.) The progress made by Donatello was influential on all who followed; perhaps the greatest of whom is Michelangelo, whose David of 1500 is also a male nude study; more naturalistic than Donatello's and with greater emotional intensity. Both sculptures are standing in contrapposto, their weight shifted to one leg.

The period known as the High Renaissance represents the culmination of the goals of the earlier period, namely the accurate representation of figures in space rendered with credible motion and in an appropriately decorous style. The most famous painters from this phase are Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo. Their images are among the most widely known works of art in the world. Leonardo's Last Supper, Raphael's The School of Athens and Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel Ceiling are the textbook masterpieces of the period.

High Renaissance painting evolved into Mannerism, especially in Florence. Mannerist artists, who consciously rebelled against the principles of High Renaissance, tend to represent elongated figures in illogical spaces. Modern scholarship has recognized the capacity of Mannerist art to convey strong (often religious) emotion where the High Renaissance failed to do so. Some of the main artists of this period are Pontormo, Bronzino, Rosso Fiorentino, Parmigianino and Raphael's pupil Giulio Romano.

Renaissance architecture

In Florence, the Renaissance style was introduced with a revolutionary but incomplete monument in Rimini by Leone Battista Alberti. Some of the earliest buildings showing Renaissance characteristics are Filippo Brunelleschi's church of San Lorenzo and the Pazzi Chapel. The interior of Santo Spirito expresses a new sense of light, clarity and spaciousness, which is typical of the early Italian Renaissance. Its architecture reflects the philosophy of Humanism, the enlightenment and clarity of mind as opposed to the darkness and spirituality of the Middle Ages. The revival of classical antiquity can best be illustrated by the Palazzo Rucellai. Here the pilasters follow the superposition of classical orders, with Doric capitals on the ground floor, Ionic capitals on the piano nobile and Corinthian capitals on the uppermost floor.

In Mantua, Leone Battista Alberti ushered in the new antique style, though his culminating work, Sant'Andrea, was not begun until 1472, after the architect's death.

The High Renaissance, as we call the style today, was introduced to Rome with Donato Bramante's Tempietto at San Pietro in Montorio (1502) and his original centrally-planned St. Peter's Basilica (1506), which was the most notable architectural commission of the era, influenced by almost all notable Renaissance artists, including Michelangelo and Giacomo della Porta. The beginning of the late Renaissance in 1550 was marked by the development of a new column order by Andrea Palladio. Colossal columns that were two or more stories tall decorated the facades.
Renaissance music

In Italy in the 14th century there was an explosion of musical activity that corresponded in scope and level of innovation to the activity in the other arts. Although musicologists typically group the music of the Trecento (music of the 1300s) with the late medieval period, it included features which align with the early Renaissance in important ways: an increasing emphasis on secular sources, styles and forms; a spreading of culture away from ecclesiastical institutions to the nobility, and even to the common people; and a quick development of entirely new techniques. The principal forms were the Trecento madrigal, the caccia, and the ballata. Overall, the musical style of the period is sometimes labelled as the "Italian ars nova." From the early 15th century to the middle of the 16th century, the center of innovation in sacred music was in the Low Countries, and a flood of talented composers came to Italy from this region. Many of them sang in either the papal choir in Rome or the choirs at the numerous chapels of the aristocracy, in Rome, Venice, Florence, Milan, Ferrara and elsewhere; and they brought their polyphonic style with them, influencing many native Italian composers during their stay.

The predominant forms of church music during the period were the mass and the motet. By far the most famous composer of church music in 16th century Italy was Palestrina, the most prominent member of the Roman School, whose style of smooth, emotionally cool polyphony was to become the defining sound of the late 16th century, at least for generations of 19th- and 20th century musicologists. Other Italian composers of the late 16th century focused on composing the main secular form of the era, the madrigal: and for almost a hundred years these secular songs for multiple singers were distributed all over Europe. Composers of madrigals included Jacques Arcadelt, at the beginning of the age, Cipriano de Rore, in the middle of the century, and Luca Marenzio, Philippe de Monte, Carlo Gesualdo, and Claudio Monteverdi at the end of the era. Italy was also a centre of innovation in instrumental music. By the early 16th century keyboard improvisation came to be greatly valued, and numerous composers of virtuoso keyboard music appeared. Many familiar instruments were invented and perfected in late Renaissance Italy, such as the violin, the earliest forms of which came into use in the 1550s.

By the late 16th century Italy was the musical centre of Europe. Almost all of the innovations which were to define the transition to the Baroque period originated in northern Italy in the last few decades of the century. In Venice, the polychoral productions of the Venetian School, and associated instrumental music, moved north into Germany; in Florence, the Florentine Camerata developed monody, the important precursor to opera, which itself first appeared around 1600; and the avant-garde, manneristic style of the Ferrara school, which migrated to Naples and elsewhere through the music of Carlo Gesualdo, was to be the final statement of the polyphonic vocal music of the Renaissance.

Comparison of the English and Italian Renaissances

The English Renaissance is different from the Italian Renaissance in several ways. First, the dominant art forms of the English Renaissance were literature and music, and the Visual arts were much less significant than in the Italian Renaissance. The English period began far later than the Italian, which is usually considered to begin with Dante, Petrarch and Giotto in the early 1300s, and was moving into Mannerism and the Baroque by the 1550s or earlier. In contrast, the English Renaissance can only be said to begin, shakily, in the 1520s, and continued until perhaps 1620.

The Italian and English Renaissances were similar in sharing a specific musical aesthetic. In the late 16th century Italy was the musical center of Europe, and one of the principal forms which emerged from that singular explosion of musical creativity was the madrigal. In 1588, Nicholas Yonge published in England the Musica transalpina—a collection of Italian madrigals that had been Anglicized — an event which began a vogue of madrigal in England which was almost unmatched in the Renaissance in being an instantaneous adoption of an idea, from another country, adapted to local aesthetics. (In a delicious irony of history, a military invasion from a Catholic country – Spain – failed in that year, but a cultural invasion from another Catholic county, Italy, succeeded). English poetry was exactly at the right stage of development for this transplantation to occur, since forms such as the sonnet were uniquely adapted to setting as madrigals: indeed, the sonnet was already well-developed in Italy. Composers such as Thomas Morley, the only contemporary composer to set Shakespeare, and whose work survives, published collections of their own, roughly in the Italian manner but yet with a unique Englishness; many of the compositions of the English Madrigal School remain in the standard repertory in the 21st century.

The colossal polychoral productions of the Venetian School had been anticipated in the works of Thomas Tallis, and the Palestrina style from the Roman School had already been absorbed prior to the publication of Musical transalpina, in the music of masters such as William Byrd.

While the Classical revival led to a flourishing of Italian Renaissance architecture, architecture in Britain took a more eclectic approach. Elizabethan architecture retained many features of the Gothic, even while the occasional building such as the tomb in the Henry VII Lady Chapel at Westminster Abbey, or the French-influenced architecture of Scotland showed interest in the new style.

Criticisms of the idea of the English Renaissance

The notion of calling this period "The Renaissance" is a modern invention, having been popularized by the historian Jacob Burckhardt in the nineteenth century. The idea of the Renaissance has come under increased criticism by many cultural historians, and some have contended that the "English Renaissance" has no real tie with the artistic achievements and aims of the northern Italian artists (Leonardo, Michelangelo, Donatello) who are closely identified with the Renaissance. Indeed, England had already experienced a flourishing of literature over 200 years before the time of Shakespeare when Geoffrey Chaucer was working. Chaucer's popularizing of English as a medium of literary composition rather than Latin was only 50 years after Dante had started using Italian for serious poetry. At the same time William Langland, author of Piers Plowman, and John Gower were also writing in English. The Hundred Years' War and the subsequent civil war in England known as the Wars of the Roses probably hampered artistic endeavor until the relatively peaceful and stable reign of Elizabeth I allowed drama in particular to develop.[1] Even during these war years, though, Thomas Malory, author of Le Morte D'Arthur, was a notable figure. For this reason, scholars find the singularity of the period called the English Renaissance questionable; C. S. Lewis, a professor of Medieval and Renaissance literature at Oxford and Cambridge, famously remarked to a colleague that he had "discovered" that there was no English Renaissance, and that if there had been one, it had "no effect whatsoever"

Historians have also begun to consider the word "Renaissance" as an unnecessarily loaded word that implies an unambiguously positive "rebirth" from the supposedly more primitive Middle Ages. Some historians have asked the question "a renaissance for whom?," pointing out, for example, that the status of women in society arguably declined during the Renaissance. Many historians and cultural historians now prefer to use the term "early modern" for this period, a neutral term that highlights the period as a transitional one that led to the modern world, but does not have any positive or negative connotations.

Other cultural historians have countered that, regardless of whether the name "renaissance" is apt, there was undeniably an artistic flowering in England under the Tudor monarchs, culminating in Shakespeare and his contemporaries.

News Paper Project for Social.

2009-03-21T07:35:00.000-07:00

High middle Ages

The High Middle Ages was the period of European history in the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries (AD 1000–1299). The High Middle Ages were preceded by the Early Middle Ages and followed by the Late Middle Ages, which by convention end around 1500.

The key historical trend of the High Middle Ages was the rapidly increasing population of Europe, which brought about great social and political change from the preceding era. By 1250 the robust population increase greatly benefited the economy, reaching levels it would not see again in some areas until the 19th century. This trend was checked in the Late Middle Ages by a series of calamities, notably the Black Death but also including numerous wars and economic stagnation.

From about the year 1000 onwards, Western Europe saw the last of the Barbarian invasions and became more politically organized. The Vikings had settled in the British Isles, France and elsewhere, whilst Norse Christian kingdoms were developing in their Scandinavian homelands. The Magyars had ceased their expansion in the 10th century, and by the year 1000, a Christian Kingdom of Hungary was recognized in central Europe. With the brief exception of the Mongol invasions, major barbarian incursions ceased.

Western Europe and the ascent of the great Italian city-states. The still-powerful Roman Church called armies from across Europe to a series of Crusades against the Seljuk Turks, who occupied the Holy Land. The rediscovery of the works of Aristotle led Thomas Aquinas and other thinkers to develop the philosophy of Scholasticism. In architecture, many of the most notable Gothic cathedrals were built or completed during this era.

Liber Abaci

In the Liber Abaci (1202), Fibonacci introduces the so-called modus Indorum (method of the Indians), today known as Arabic numerals (Sigler 2003; Grimm 1973). The book advocated numeration with the digits 0–9 and place value. The book showed the practical importance of the new numeral system, using lattice multiplication and Egyptian fractions, by applying it to commercial bookkeeping, conversion of weights and measures, the calculation of interest, money-changing, and other applications. The book was well received throughout educated Europe and had a profound impact on European thought.

Liber Abaci also posed, and solved, a problem involving the growth of a hypothetical population of rabbits based on idealized assumptions. The solution, generation by generation, was a sequence of numbers later known as Fibonacci numbers. The number sequence was known to Indian mathematicians as early as the 6th century, but it was Fibonacci's Liber Abaci that introduced it to the West.

Made By Leonardo of Pisa

Leonardo of Pisa (c. 1170 – c. 1250), also known as Leonardo Pisano, Leonardo Bonacci, Leonardo Fibonacci, or, most commonly, simply Fibonacci, was an Italian mathematician, considered by some "the most talented mathematician of the Middle Ages".

Fibonacci is best known to the modern world for:

* The spreading of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system in Europe, primarily through the publication in the early 13th century of his Book of Calculation, the Liber Abaci.

* A number sequence named after him known as the Fibonacci numbers, which he did not discover but used as an example in the Liber Abaci.

START OF PAPER USAGE DURING RENAISSANCE

The use of paper spread from China through the Islamic world, and entered production in Europe in the early 12th century. Mechanised production of paper in the early 19th century caused significant cultural changes worldwide, allowing for relatively cheap exchange of information in the form of letters, newspapers and books for the first time.

Paper is a versatile material with many uses. Whilst the most common is for writing and printing upon, it is also widely used as a packaging material, in many cleaning products, and in a number of industrial and construction processes, and occasionally as a food ingredient, particularly in Asian cultures.

Origin of Black Death

The origins of the plague are disputed among scholars. Some historians believe the pandemic began in China or Central Asia (one such location is Lake Issyk Kul) in the lungs of the bobac variety of marmot, spreading to fleas, to rats, and eventually to humans. In the late 1320s or 1330’s, and during the next years merchants and soldiers carried it over the caravan routes until in 1346 it reached the Crimea in South Eastern Europe. Other scholars believe the plague was endemic in that area. In either case, from Crimea the plague spread to Western Europe and North Africa during the 1340s. The total number of deaths worldwide is estimated at 75 million people, approximately 25–50 million of which occurred in Europe. The Black Death is estimated to have killed 30% to 60% of Europe's population. It may have reduced the world's population from an estimated 450 million to between 350 and 375 million in 1400. The plague is thought to have returned every generation with varying virulence and mortalities until the 1700s. During this period, more than 100 plague epidemics swept across Europe. On its return in 1603, the plague killed 38,000 Londoners Other notable 17th century outbreaks were the Italian Plague of 1629–1631, and the Great Plague of Seville (1647–1652), the Great Plague of London (1665–1666), and the Great Plague of Vienna (1679). There is some controversy over the identity of the disease, but in its virulent form, after the Great Plague of Marseille in 1720–1722, the Great Plague of 1738 (which hit eastern Europe), and the 1771 plague in Moscow, it seems to have disappeared from Europe in the 19th century. The 14th century eruption of the Black Death had a drastic effect on Europe's population, irrevocably changing the social structure. It was a serious blow to the Roman Catholic Church, and resulted in widespread persecution of minorities such as Jews, foreigners, beggars, and lepers. The uncertainty of daily survival created a general mood of morbidity, influencing people to "live for the moment", as illustrated by Giovanni Boccaccio in The Decameron (1353).

THE SPREADING OF BLACK DEATH DISEASE

The plague disease, generally thought to be caused by Yersinia pestis, is enzootic (commonly present) in populations of ground rodents (most specifically, the bobac variety of marmot) in Central Asia, but it is not entirely clear where the 14th century pandemic started. The popular theory places the first cases in the steppes of Central Asia, although some speculate that it originated around northern India, and others, such as the historian Michael W. Dols, argue that the historical evidence concerning epidemics in the Mediterranean and specifically the Plague of Justinian point to a probability that the Black Death originated in Africa and spread to Central Asia, where it then became entrenched among the rodent population. Nevertheless, from Central Asia it was carried east and west along the Silk Road, by Mongol armies and traders making use of the opportunities of free passage within the Mongol Empire offered by the Pax Mongolica. It was reportedly first introduced to Europe at the trading city of Caffa in the Crimea in 1347. After a protracted siege, during which the Mongol army under Jani Beg was

suffering the disease, they catapulted the infected corpses over the city walls to infect the inhabitants. The Genoese traders fled, bringing the plague by ship into Sicily and the south of Europe, whence it spread. Whether or not this hypothesis is accurate, it is clear that several preexisting conditions such as war, famine, and weather contributed to the severity of the Black Death. In China, the thirteenth century Mongol conquest disrupted farming and trading, and led to widespread famine. The population dropped from approximately 120 to 60 million. The 14th century plague is estimated to have killed 1/3 of the population of China

Major Accomplishments

Of science during Renaissance

Scientific method — The scientific method, as systematic approach to theory and experimentation, developed during the Middle Ages due to the work of scholars such as Alhazen, Biruni, Bacon, and Robert Grosseteste, who produced a systemized process of scientific enquiry based upon observation, experimentation and verification of hypotheses

Biruni

Robert Grosseteste

Accomplishment of Science in health during renaissance

Modern surgery — Although the first known surgical text was written by Sushruta in antiquity, Medieval researchers, especially Abulcasis, developed the techniques and tools that led to modern surgical practices (e.g. double-edged scalpel, syringe, vaginal speculum, etc.).[22] The 1266 work Chirurgia, (Surgery), by Theodoric Borgognoni advocates antiseptic surgery, in opposition to the Arab belief in "laudable pus.

Discover by Theodoric Borgognoni

Theodoric Borgognoni, (1205-1296), also known as Teodorico de'Borgognoni, and Theodoric of Lucca, was an Italian who became one of the most significant surgeons of the medieval period. A Dominican friar and Bishop of Cervia, Borgognoni is considered responsible for introducing and promoting important medical advances including basic antiseptic practice in surgery and the use of anaesthetics.

Scientific revolution

During the Renaissance, Nicolaus Copernicus proposed a heliocentric model of the solar system. His work was defended, expanded upon, and corrected by Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler. Galileo innovated by using telescopes to enhance his observations.

Kepler was the first to devise a system that described correctly the details of the motion of the planets with the Sun at the center. However, Kepler did not succeed in formulating a theory behind the laws he wrote down. It was left to Newton's invention of celestial dynamics and his law of gravitation to finally explain the motions of the planets. Newton also developed the reflecting telescope.

Further discoveries paralleled the improvements in the size and quality of the telescope. More extensive star catalogues were produced by Lacaille. The astronomer William Herschel made a detailed catalog of nebulosity and clusters, and in 1781 discovered the planet

Uranus, the first new planet found. The distance to a star was first announced in 1838 when the parallax of 61 Cygni was measured by Friedrich Bessel.

During the nineteenth century, attention to the three body problem by Euler, Clairaut, and D'Alembert led to more accurate predictions about the motions of the Moon and planets. This work was further refined by Lagrange and Laplace, allowing the masses of the planets and moons to be estimated from their perturbations.

Renaissance of the 15th century

The 15th century saw the beginning of the cultural movement of the Renaissance. The rediscovery of Greek scientific texts, both ancient and medieval, was accelerated as the Byzantine Empire fell to the Ottoman Turks and many Byzantine scholars sought refuge in the West, particularly Italy. Also, the invention of printing was to have great effect on European society: the facilitated dissemination of the printed word democratized learning and allowed a faster propagation of new ideas.

But this initial period is usually seen as one of scientific backwardness.[citation needed] There were no new developments in physics or astronomy,[citation needed] and the reverence for classical sources further enshrined the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic views of the universe. Humanism stressed that nature came to be viewed as an animate spiritual creation that was not governed by laws or mathematics. At the same time philosophy lost much of its rigour as the rules of logic and deduction were seen as secondary to intuition and emotion.[citation needed]

It would not be until the Renaissance moved to Northern Europe that science would be revived, with such figures as Copernicus, Francis Bacon, and Descartes (though Descartes is often described as an early Enlightenment thinker, rather than a late Renaissance one).

Translators of The "Toledo School"

Among the early translators at Toledo were an Avendauth (who some have identified with Abraham ibn Daud), who translated Avicenna's encyclopedia, the Kitāb al-Shifa (The Book of Healing), in cooperation with Domingo Gundisalvo, Archdeacon of Cuéllar. Alfonso of Toledo's translations into Latin include Averroes' De separatione primi principii. John of Seville's translations included the works of al-Battani, Thabit ibn Qurra, Maslamah Ibn Ahmad al-Majriti, al-Farabi, Albumasar , al-Ghazali and Alfraganus; and Costa ben Luca's De differentia spiritus et anime.

The most productive of the Toledo translators was Gerard of Cremona, who translated 87 books, including Ptolemy's Almagest, many of the works of Aristotle, including his Posterior Analytics, Physics, On the Heavens and the World, On Generation and Corruption, and Meteorology, al-Khwarizmi's On Algebra and Almucabala, Archimedes' On the Measurement of the Circle,

Aristotle, Euclid's Elements of Geometry, Jabir ibn Aflah's Elementa astronomica

Parts of Investigatory project

2009-03-21T07:29:00.000-07:00

SCIENCE INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

- an investigation about a scientific problem (question);

- a problem-solving process using the scientific method.

PHASES OF CONDUCTING AN INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

PHASE I : THE PROPOSAL (20 points)

The proposal is a detailed written plan of how the project will be done. It is like designing an experiment. Since it is yet to be done, the future tense of the verbs is used.

It contained the following parts:

I. PROBLEM

a. It is stated as a question/scientific inquiry.

II. TITLE

a. It is patterned from the question, however it must contain only the essential words.

III. RATIONALE

a. The background of the problem. It answers the following questions:

1. How did you arrive at that kind of problem?

2. Why do you like to investigate that kind of problem where in fact there are hundreds of problems out there?

IV. MATERIALS

a. What are the things you need in solving your problem? Are you going to buy them or just borrow?

V. PROCEDURE

a. What are the orderly steps you are going to do to solve your problem?

b. How are you going to present the data that you will gather? Will it be through graphs or tables?

VI. IMPLICATION

a. In case your problem will be solved, what will be its importance to the school or to the community? Will your findings benefit others?

VII. TIME TABLE

a. How are you going to schedule the making of your project against the deadline set by your teacher? Are your schedules attainable?

VIII. BUDGET

a. How much each material you need costs in the market?

b. How much are you going to spend for the project as a group? How much will be the contribution of each member?

c. Do your parents approve your budget? Did your leader inform them about the possible expenses through a letter?

IX. PROPONENTS

a. Who propose the project? The group names appear here.

PHASE II: THE INVESTIGATION (20 points)

- as soon as your proposal is approved you can now start investigating. Your procedure will be your guide. Keep track of all your observations and data by placing them on a table. Document also your works by photographs, videos, etc.

PHASE III. THE OUTPUT (60 points)

- after conducting the investigation you are now ready to organize your gathered data and present your findings. The output has three levels:

1. THE WRITTEN REPORT (30 points)

a. A recall of all the things you did to solve your problem. The mode of the verb is in the past tense.

IT HAS THE FOLLOWING PARTS

1. PROBLEM

2. TITLE

3. ABSTRACT

a. Sometimes judges do not have time to study all the details of your work, they only read the abstract, thus it’s called the SHOW WINDOW of your project. It must contain brief explanation of the following:

1. Purpose of the study

2. Procedure

3. Findings

3. INTRODUCTION

a. Just enrich your proposal’s rationale. It makes a good introduction.

4. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

a. This contains findings of other studies or investigations similar as yours.

5. PROCEDURE

a. Two parts of the proposal are combined here:

a. MATERIALS

b. PROCEDURE

You must explain in details the things you did to solve the problem. The proposal procedure is your guide in making this portion.

6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

a. This shows the data you have gathered arranged or presented in tables or graphs. The data must already speak of the whole thing (general).

b. You must discuss too the results. What do those data mean?

7. CONCLUSION

a. This briefly states the immediate answer/findings about the problem.

8. RECOMMENDATION

a. If others would be doing your project, what would you advise them?

9. RESEARCHERS

a. Your names

10. ADVISER

a. Your Science teacher’s name

II. THE EXHIBIT (20 points)

It is a showcase of your IP mounted on a board (to be explained by your teacher). It must attract viewers so that they may get interested to your IP.

III. THE ORAL DEFENSE (20 points)

You will present your work to a panel of judges and they will ask you questions about your project.

Sacsguide

Mylot

The amoung of starch in a 1/4kg camote

Advantages and disadvantages of camote

There are no disadvantages in camote or sweet potato.

The Amoung of Citric Acid in a 3/4 ripe Mango

English (Song to Celia)

Computer Ma'am Son's Research

Hip Hop History

The Necklace

Topic Sentence

Example of Congregation

Persecution of Christian 1st

1st period of Persecution under Nero, 64-68 A.D.

Persecution from the second century to Constantine

The Great Persecution (3rd persecution)

Invention during Renaissance

Scrap Book About Poverty,Miseducation,Overpopulation

Cultural maping CEBU

Roman Contribution to civilization

HISTORY OF OUR LADY OF THE RULE FROM PARISH PRIEST

Renaissance Artist.

Acropolis

Maikling Kwento ng Kababalaghan

Maikling kuwento

Mga uri

Tema [baguhin]

Aspekto ng Pandiwa

Indian Music

BEOWULF

News Paper Project for Social part 2

News Paper Project for Social.

High middle Ages

Liber Abaci

Origin of Black Death

THE SPREADING OF BLACK DEATH DISEASE

Major Accomplishments

Discover by Theodoric Borgognoni

Scientific revolution

Renaissance of the 15th century

Parts of Investigatory project

1^st period of Persecution under Nero, 64-68 A.D.

The Great Persecution (3^rd persecution)